BDC CH. 14 Flashcards
What happened August 11, 1965?
fight between officer Lee Minikus + black man Marquette Frye (routine traffic stop turned ugly)
- crowd of blacks + more officers began to form as Frye drew attention
- led to an all out riot (six consecutive days of violence)
- labeled the Watts Riot (for black section of Los Angeles it erupted in)
- was bloodiest race riot since Detroit 1943
(CLLW)
What did the McCone Commission try to do to help w/ the aftermath of the Watts Riot?
tried to downplay significance of incidence calling it “senseless”
- criminal vandalism not purposeful protest
- commission made light of racial discrimination
- exonerated the LAPD + criticized civil rights movement for weakening black order/civility
- blamed violence on unrepresentative minority of unemployed Southern migrants
(CCEB)
How was the report by the McCone Commission badly misstating the significance of the Watts Riot?
- people involved in riot said to be 8x what was reported
- critics disputed contention that riot was purposeless
- most blacks defined it as protest to draw attention to grievances
- Bayard Rustin said rioters acted w/ degree of deliberation + rationality
- rioters attacked property not people + focused attack on white businesses they regarded as exploitative
(PCMBR)
What is thought to be the most striking aspect of the Watts Riot?
lack of remorse felt by the black pop.
- most blacks in LA did not see riot as a tragic mistake
- even those who disapproved felt sympathy for rioters
- people placed most blame on police + believed riot drew attention to black grievances
- many felt positive pride in seizing control of the streets
(MEPM)
How did the lack of remorse shown by black people in Los Angeles bode ill for the civil rights movement?
- ever since 1964 riots King had been weighing taking the SCLC north
- wanted to apply methods of nonviolence to the black ghettos
- moving North meant the SCLC would have to deal w/ skepticism/hostility
- many blacks in North not open to nonviolent action
- most rioters rhetoric in North suggested visceral hate for white people not wanting cooperation
(EWMMM)
What did the Watts Riot do?
- brought out into the open widespread hostility towards whites brewing in Northern ghettos
- resentment towards whites even more intense than the South
(BR)
How did the gains made during the Civil Rights Movement give false realities about the state of blacks in the North?
civil rights reforms had been designed w/ the South in mind
- LBJ “Great Society” legislation raised black expectation but offered no way out of the ghetto
- situation for many Northern blacks hadn’t improved at all (sometimes even deteriorating)
(CLS)
What was the latest migration of blacks to the North caused by?
started during WWII w/ inc. industrial production created new opportunities for blacks to enter blue collar work
- industry jobs that had previously been held by European immigrants mostly
- provided stable employment + decent livelihoods
(IP)
How was the blue collar work experience in the North different for blacks during WWII than when European immigrants had arrived earlier in the 20th century?
- black migrants entering blue collar work just when technological advancements eliminating many jobs
- industry employment shifted from cities to suburbs
- employers had stricter skills tests many immigrants didn’t have to go through
- poorly educated black migrants put at disadvantage
(BIEP)
What happened to most blacks following the economic gains of WWII?
- black unemployment reached 10% by 1954
- stayed at twice the level of whites throughout 1960s
- young black men inc. dropping out of legal employment by the 60s (criminal activity + gangs more common)
(BSY)
What was the main cause of racial unemployment in the North despite fair employment laws?
the unions
- virtually impossible for blacks to obtain union card in construction industry
- unions limited size of membership
- unions accepted “apprentices” on a friends/relatives basis (created white monopoly)
- apprenticeships could last five years discouraging black workers even more
- even unions w/ large black memberships were concentrated in lower paid unskilled jobs
(VUUAE)
What was the most visible + strongest form of racial discrimination in the North?
housing
- persisted even after invalidation of restrictive covenants by Supreme Court in 1948
- supported by majority of white homeowners (viewed proximity to blacks as a threat)
- blacks prevented from buying property close to white residential areas
- whites panic sold when neighborhoods becoming “too black” (forming more ghettos)
(PSBW)
How did white politicians quietly reinforce segregation in the North?
- ensured public housing projects either all black/all white
- sporadic attempts to integrate public housing evoked white resistance
- used urban redevelopment to create physical barriers between white/black areas (routing of expressway)
(ESU)
How was segregation becoming even more entrenched in the North during the 50s/60s?
more whites moving to new suburbs
- white only suburbs built w/ support of Federal Housing Authority
- gov. did little to oppose housing segregation even after JFK banned it in 1964 Civil Rights Act
- caused races to live apart + ghettos to grow
- residential segregation more rigid in the North than the South
(WGCR)
How did segregated housing in the North affect public education?
produced de facto segregated schools
- school boards further encouraged segregation by gerrymandering school attendance zones
- white students permitted to transfer out of predominately black schools
(SW)
How did whites in the North express their opposition to integration during the 60s?
- 1964 = Cali voters pass Prop 14 (repealed recently passed fair housing law)
- voters in other states rejected anti-discrimination laws
- black families in white neighborhoods often met w/ harassment + violence
(NVB)
Where did the SCLC begin to focus its attack in 1966?
housing segregation in the North (first Chicago)
- organized marches in all white neighborhoods
- very effective (exposed violent white opposition + depth of Chicago racial division)
- exerted intense political pressure on Mayor Daley
(OVE)
What was Mayor Daley’s response to the SCLC housing segregation campaign?
forced to negotiating table
- accepted Summit Agreement that made Chicago would promote housing integration
- quietly shelved the agreement once the drama began to dec.
- King very disappointed
(AQK)
What were the deeper causes of the SCLC’s failure to secure housing integration in Chicago?
- SCLC lacked resources to reach massive black pop. (accustomed to mobilizing small South communities)
- used to dealing w/ one dimensional villains not subtle racist politicians like Daley
- Chicago black politicians supported Daley + opposed the SCLC
(SUC)
Why were many black politicians in Chicago in favor of Mayor Daley + opposed to the SCLC?
- enjoyed a certain legitimacy
- were part of the Democratic Machine (possessed patronage + favors to dispense/withhold
EW)
What did the SCLC find a hard time adjusting to in the North?
hard-edged/more secular culture
- black church lacked prestige/influence like the South
- many blacks in North were cynical towards SCLC idealism
- could not control the violence spread by gangs in the ghetto
- people refused to listen to King
(BMCP)
What was a more profound reason for the SCLC’s failure in the North?
did not gain white sympathy like in the South
- Northern liberals who’d supported King in Selma now turned against him
- sympathy for civil rights movement evaporated once it crossed the Mason-Dixon line
(NS)
What did Northern politicians attribute to the lack of white sympathy?
degree of black lawlessness + violence made them bitter
- many felt that the demonstrations were hurting black cause
- growing feeling that LBJ pushing integration too fast
(MG)
What did Bayard Rustin suggest about how the Civil Rights Movement had to change to adapt to the North?
shift from protest to politics
- invest energy in building support for progressive agenda in Democratic Party
- but race was splitting apart the New Deal coalition
(IB)
What was the position of many Northern politicians following WWII about race relations?
avoided the issue
- knew it could cost them in future elections
- denied that racial problems were as bad as the South
- 1963 = Mayor Daley denies existence of ghettos (said ethnic groups just happened to prefer living together)
- as long as blacks in North remained politically inactive racial divisions could be ignored
(KDNA)
What was the event that sparked a noticeable inc. in white backlash in the 60s?
Birmingham boycott
- sparked off demonstrations in North as well
What regularity brought Northern racism into focus?
police brutality
- 3/4 of all officers harbored extreme prejudice towards blacks
- many officers belonged to white extremist groups
- most treated blacks w/ contempt + failed to distinguish between criminals/law abiding citizens
- resorted to violence w/o provocation
- blacks killed by police w/o no penalty
(TMMRB)
How did the race riots in the 60s affect the police?
made them even more aggressive
- abandoned all restraint treating them as race wars
- defied attempts by liberal politicians to control them as they had too much support from white community
(AD)
What did the civil rights movement failure in Chicago confirm for blacks in the North?
white racism too entrenched/violent for nonviolent action to work
What did King take away from the failure in Chicago?
had a revelation
- showed how badly the movement had underestimated depth of racism
- learned substantial minority of blacks advocated for violence
(SL)
What was King’s main problem w/ trying to gain support from Northern blacks?
- had good amount of support in the North
- violent minority in black community could render his leadership ineffective
HV
What had Malcolm X accomplished by his death?
- leading black critic of nonviolence
- foremost black advocate of armed black self defense
- black man who most effectively articulated anti-white anger
(LFB)
What was the Nation of Islam (NOI)?
- founded in 1930
- led since 1934 by Elijah Muhammad
- sought to combat destructive influences of the ghetto by inculcating racial pride values + self respect
- specialized in recruiting criminals + turning them into models of piety
- Malcolm X converted while in prison for burglary
- urged blacks to practice self help + build a separate economy
(FLSSMU)
What did the Nation of Islam believe prior to Malcolm X?
- believed blacks should separate from American society to form own nation
- abstained from politics + refused to have anything to do w/ civil rights movement
(BA)
Who was Malcolm X?
- born Malcolm Little in Nebraska
- highly contrasting childhood to King (scarred in instability + poverty not church life)
- drifted into life of drugs/crime by teenage years
(BHD)
How did King + X differ in their thought process despite being raised in segregated communities?
- King’s background gave him confidence to seek racial integration
- King accepted strain of white blood in his ancestry + didn’t have much self hatred
- Malcolm didn’t have cultural anchor to provide him racial identity (black pop. in town too small)
- Malcolm close contact w/ whites exacerbated feelings of cultural confusion
- Malcolm denounced whites as evil as an adult (sought to build secure black community he never had)
(KKMMM)
How did prison prove to be X’s salvation?
- became an avid reader (began to seriously study in the prison library)
- learned the practice of self-discipline +restraint of emotions/refusal to be goaded
- converted to the Nation of Islam in 1948-49
- allowed him to review his past family issues to see most of them were caused by racist actions of whites
(BLCA)
What did X do after his release from prison in 1952?
became most successful minister in NOI
- organized temples + raised funds + recruited new members
- was principle spokesman of Elijah Muhammad documentary “The Hate That Hate Produced”
- brought X to a wider (white) audience for the first time (received a lot of backlash for rhetoric)
- started to speak across different universities + guest star on radio shows
(OWBS)
What did X represent?
- authentic spokesman for poor black masses
- fearless truth teller
- exposed timidity of other civil rights leaders like King
(AFE)
How did blacks think of X’s anti-white rhetoric?
not offended
- openly expressed bitterness that every black person shared
- blacks could accept X for his message w/o condoning support for Islam
What was the first aspect of Malcolm X’s message that made him so influential?
strong emphasis on racial pride
- represented striking contrast to civil rights movement
- insisted blacks should purge themselves from false consciousness that had distorted personalities
- condemned color consciousness in the community (praised beauty of all black people)
- struck a chord particularly w/ lower class darker black who resented middle class lightskins (RICS)
What did X represent?
- authentic spokesman for poor black masses
- fearless truth teller
- exposed timidity of other civil rights leaders like King
(AFE)
How did blacks think of X’s anti-white rhetoric?
not offended
- openly expressed bitterness that every black person shared
- blacks could accept X for his message w/o condoning support for Islam
What was the second aspect of Malcolm X’s message that made him so influential?
stressed the African dimension of black American identity (like Garvey)
- rise of black Africa from colonial rule part of wider revolt against racism
- showed dominance of white world would be shattered
(RS)
What was the third aspect of Malcolm X’s message that made him so influential?
outspoken advocacy of violence
- condemned non-violence as cowardly + ineffective
- insisted blacks had right/duty to defend themselves
- many blacks in South already practiced self defense by this time
- NAACP even endorsed it
(CIMN)
How did X begin to contend w/ Muhammad as the civil rights movement began to challenge Jim Crow?
became dissatisfied w/ apolitical stance of NOI + Muhammad
- Muhammad’s only proposed solution to race problem was resettlement of black pop. to separate state
- very unclear how Muhammad would craft such a state
- Muhammad’s secret dealings w/ white supremacist inc. X’s unease
- X believed NOI should be more politically involved
(MVMX)
What was the fourth aspect of Malcolm’s X’s message that made him so influential?
appeal to black manhood
- black men had historically found it difficult to secure position as head of the family
- slavery + migration + discrimination had all contributed to family instability in black community
- mother typically the main breadwinner
- NOI practiced division of sexes that represented exaggerated version of traditional family
(BSMN)
How did X begin to contend w/ Muhammad as the civil rights movement began to challenge Jim Crow?
became dissatisfied w/ apolitical stance of NOI + Muhammad
- Muhammad’s only proposed solution to race problem was resettlement of black pop. to separate state
-
Why was Elijah Muhammad creating secret pacts w/ the KKK?
- attacked King’s message
- labeled other black leaders “Uncle Toms”
- trying to reach an accord w/ people bombing black homes + killing black children
(ALT)
How was the relationship between Muhammad + X by 1963?
- Muhammad felt X’s popularity/ambition threatened his control over NOI
- X lost all respect for Muhammad when he discovered all of his extramarital affairs
- final break came that winter = Muhammad tried to suspend X following comments made after JFK death
- caused X to quit the NOI in 1964
(MXFC)
What did X do once leaving the NOI?
founded the Muslim Mosque Inc. + Organization of African American Unity
- shredded far fetched dogmas of the NOI
- renounced the idea that whites were devils
- embraced orthodox Islam
- modified his views on violence (made it clear in self defense only + violent uprising is suicide)
- Muhammad intent on silencing him (suspected to have ordered X’s assassination)
(SREMM)
What is X said to have started?
“Black Power”
- repudiated the qualities of the civil rights movement (inter-racialism + nonviolent direct action)
- invoked most destructive/unrealistic aspect of pre 1964 Malcolm X
- pre 1964 X = bitter critique of nonviolence + call for black separatism + denunciation of white people
- adopted X’s rhetoric towards violence the most (suggested threat of violence realistic strategy)
(RIPA)
What caused the SNCC to embrace black nationalism?
experiences in MS
- by 1966 prolonged staff encounters w/ racism in MS left many tired
- burnout merged w/ bitter disillusionment
- failure of the MFDP challenge in 1964 represented the final straw
(BBF)
What else caused the SNCC to embrace black nationalism besides treatment in MS?
had become wracked by internal tensions
- serious division between blacks/whites
- white Freedom Summer volunteers resented by black members for middle class background/media attention
- relationships in the workspace complicated matters
- many blacks felt SNCC had lost racial identity w/ how many white members they got from Freedom Summer
(SWRM)
How did the SNCC change following the 1966 elections?
- no longer had any interests in seeking common ground w/ white liberals + no interracial coalitions
- only when blacks can negotiate from position of strength should they enter coalitions w/ whites
- rejected integration (dismissed it as middle class concern w/ no relevance to black majority)
- SNCC soon voted to expel all white members + abandoned its commitment to nonviolence
(NORS)
What happened in the 1966 SNCC elections?
Stokely Carmichael replaces John Lewis as head of SNCC
- did not mean complete shift in support to Atlanta Project (even Carmichael thought it was extreme)
- did signal a repudiation of the founding principles of the SNCC
(DD)
How did the SNCC change following the 1966 elections?
- no longer had any interests in seeking common ground w/ white liberals + no interracial coalitions
- only when blacks can negotiate from position of strength should they enter coalitions w/ whites
- rejected integration (dismissed it as middle class concern w/ no relevance to black majority)
- SNCC soon voted to expel all white members + abandoned its commitment to nonviolence
(NORS)
What was the Meredith March of 1966?
protest march through MS led by John Meredith
- gave SNCC a means of publicizing its new stance
- SNCC bowed to King’s request that whites be allowed in the march
- only agreed b/c only King could guarantee the media interest that the SNCC planned to exploit
- King threatened to quit if not allowed
(GSOK)
What did King accept from the SNCC in allowing whites to participate in the Meredith March?
agreed to the Deacons of Defense
- group of armed men from Bogalusa, LA
What happened when the Meredith March got to Greenville?
SNCC publicly/directly challenged King’s leadership
- Carmichael gets arrested by inciting crowd
- King pleads w/ Carmichael to abandon black power slogan but he refuses
(CK)
Why did the community embrace Black Power so quickly?
the term black struck against the derogatory labels african americans had been given for years
- embrace of racial identity
- call to action that overcame deeply rooted feeling of insecurity + inferiority
- blackness something to celebrate not be ashamed of
(ECB)
How did the Black Power movement branch off the progress made by the civil rights movement?
- having achieved equality blacks needed to unite to organize effectively
- needed to maximize political/economic power
- focused on group solidarity + strengthening of black businesses
(HNF)
What did the civil rights movement neglect by putting so much emphasis on integration?
segregated black institutions in North/South
- gave no thought to future of black businesses/churches + neighborhoods
- groups like CORE had already implemented local community organizing projects for improvements
- group recognized the reality of black ghetto + trying to improve poor living conditions of blacks
(GGG)
How did the Black Power movement branch off the progress made by the civil rights movement?
-
How was the vagueness around Black Power a strength of the movement?
made it very elastic when it came to defining it to different audiences
- conservatives labeled it as black capitalism
- moderates defined it as electoral politics
- nationalists defined it as the creation of a separate black culture
(CMN)
What added to the fragmentation of the Civil Rights Movement in 1965?
LBJ escalation of war effort in Vietnam
- SNCC bitterly opposed to the war + took strong position against it in 1966
- King also appalled by the war but kept his views to himself for a long time
- King would finally condemn war in 1967 (angered LBJ no longer welcome to the White House)
- many blacks did not support King’s stand on Vietnam + condemned him for putting movement at risk
(SKKM)
Besides alienating white liberals what else did the Black Power movement do?
split the Civil Rights movement
- A Phillip Randolph + Bayard Rustin + National Urban League denounced the phrase
- only CORE supported the SNCC by this time
- King did not like the phrase + was now struggling to maintain position as unifying force for civil rights
(AOK)
What was a domestic effect on blacks due to Vietnam?
fostered a climate of violence that made peaceful reform hard to sustain
- blacks dying at disproportionate rates in Vietnam
- civil rights workers being drafted in a war they hated
- the government that condemned race riots at home willing to be violent overseas against other race
(BCT)
What did the SNCC do in the face of criticism towards Black Power?
fanned the flames even more
- exploited the media’s obsession w/ violence
- Carmichael began explicitly calling for violent action
(EC)
Why did the Black Power movement deteriorate in the South?
- blacks gladly invoked Black Power in the South but grassroots activism still mainly nonviolent
- most blacks recognized South was changing for the better (knew revolution talks were absurd)
- separatism had little appeal
- call for independent political parties in states where blacks were severely outnumbered didn’t make sense
- many blacks offended by anti-white rhetoric (thought whites still valuable to civil rights cause)
(BMSCM)
Why did the Black Power movement deteriorate in the North?
- SNCC proved unable to transform racial anger into local movements
- SNCC mistook riots for rebellions (falsely concluded revolution was at hand)
- riots didn’t indicate most blacks were alienated from the political system
- riots were explosions of anger that evoked brutal overreactions by police
- riot purpose was to draw attention to racial discrimination + extract concessions from gov.
(SSRRR)
What was the presence of the SNCC by 1967?
had withered away in the South completely
- funds had dried up (relied on white contributors who stopped giving)
- FBI infiltration + dirty tricks helped put an end to the SNCC
- moribund by 1968
- main cause of downfall was w/in (had no realistic plan of approach for their lofty ambitions)
(FFMM)
What did the ghetto riots inadvertently encourage?
a cult of the gun
- SNCC advocated violence but never actually took part
- US (United Slaves) + Black Panther Party for Self Defense (BPP) founded 1966 in California
- both inspired by Malcolm X + represented competing visions of black nationalism
- both amassed weapons + used them
(SUBB)
What was the Black Panther Party?
- founded in Oakland by Huey Newton + Bobby Seale
- eclectic mixture of black nationalism + Marxism
- recruited similarly to NOI
- derided US emphasis on African culture as “pork chop nationalism”
- stressed that they would allow white radicals to join
- ten point program combined reformist + revolutionary + nationalist demands
(FERDST)
What were some of the demands in the BPP ten point program?
- exemption of black men from military service
- release of all black prisoners
- end to police brutality
- UN supervised plebiscite to decide future of “black colony”
- basic living income
(EREUB)
What was the focus of the BPP’s identity/appeal?
guns
- carried them openly in public
- May 2, 1967 = 30 Panthers went to Sacramento to protest law banning public display of guns
- still committed to violence in self defense only
- were policing the Oakland police (gun fights sparked)
(CMSW)
What was the focus of the BPP’s identity/appeal?
guns
-
What was the federal response to the BPP?
cracked down hard
- law enforcement targeted BPP members
- over 300 panthers arrested in 1969 alone
- Fred Hampton + Mark Clark shot dead by 14 Chicago policemen
(LOF)
What was the FBI’s role in destroying the BPP?
- agents tapped telephones + recruited spies + used covert action techniques
- spread false rumors to start infighting w/in the organization
- incited violence between the panthers + other orgs.
(ASI)
How was the repression of the BPP overkill?
- rhetoric of revolution just bombast
- common among black orgs. at this time
- violent language not meant to be taken literally
(RCV)
How were the BPP not innocent victims?
- amassed weapons + went out of their way to provoke police
- found it difficult to throw off earlier criminal habits (many members ex cons)
- enforced internal disputes through beatings
- did not hesitate to incite violence on undercover agents
- Huey Newton became a junky + criminal
(AFEDH)
What did the downfall of the BPP illustrate?
dangers of organizing a political movement around guns
- no semblance of internal democracy meant they relied on violently enforced dictatorial authority
- challenges to authority led to violent feuds
- commitment to violence made them especially susceptible to FBI
- had conspiratorial methods of revolutionaries but not the fanaticism (created a siege mentality in BPP)
- FBI exploited this who were masters at infiltrating secret orgs.
- fear of spies/agents led to paranoia that led to inc. infighting
(NCCHFF)
What were the pros of Black Power?
- educated blacks politically
- fostered grassroots activism + national caucuses
- changed black culture for the better
(EFC)
What did King attempt to do in 1967-68 to contend against the irrationality of Black Power?
forge an interracial coalition around the issue of poverty
-racial inequalities he thought were rooted in the structure of American capitalism
- thought if poverty dramatized enough through nonviolent protest had capacity to grow nationally
(RT)
What was the fate of the Poor People’s Campaign following King’s death?
disaster
- SCLC shantytown was an eyesore/embarrassment
- achieved virtually nothing
(SA)
