BDC CH. 11 Flashcards
What started the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
Rosa Parks arrest
- refused to give up seat to white passenger
- mobilized entire black pop. in AL capital city
- 50,000 walked to work/gave each other lifts for 381 days
- astounded the world + ended in victory
(RMFA)
Why do some people feel that it was white obstinacy not black planning that led to the victory in the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
- blacks never asked for end to segregation on buses just separate but equal
- had already been bus boycott in LA two years earlier that ended after a week
- both sides able to come to an agreement on “separate but equal” facilities
- AL whites refused to give any concessions which prolonged boycott + prompted blacks to demand more
(BHBA)
Why could the Montgomery Bus Boycott have happened anywhere in the South?
black resentment of bus segregation was widespread
- black protests about bussing increasingly common
- May 18, 1953 = public bus protests in Richmond, VA by 1000 blacks
(BM)
Who was Rosa Parks?
- joined NAACP in 1943 (became Montgomery branch secretary)
- attended a school desegregation workshop a couple months before arrest in TN
JA
Who was Edgar Daniel Nixon?
- one of the primary organizers of the bus boycott
- most prominent black activist in Montgomery
- idolized A Phillip Randolph
- stalwart of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
- served as Montgomery NAACP president rom 1946-50
- headed state NAACP org.
- head of Progressive Democratic Association
(OMISSHH)
Who was Jo An Robinson?
- English professor at AL State College
- enlisted Women’s Political Council to spread the word after Parks arrest
- printed thousands of flyers announcing the boycott
(EEP)
What does the speed + enthusiasm w/ which blacks were organizing the bus boycott underline?
blacks were initiating not simply reacting
- Dec. 2, 1955 = ED Nixon calls meeting to involve black ministers in boycott to announce to pulpits
- committee formed + resolutions drafted + officers elected that Sunday afternoon
- creation of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
- MIA scheduled mass meeting on Monday to gauge support (black leaders across state showed support)
(DCCM)
Who did they select as president of the MIA?
MLK
- relatively unknown at this point
- transplant from Atlanta
- people saw him as a neutral figure who could bridge factions w/in MIA
- also very articulate/well educated
(RTPA)
What were the MIA’s demands for public transport changes?
- sought courteous treatment from bus drivers
- no seats reserved exclusively for race
- employment of black bus drivers on routes that went through mainly black neighborhoods
(SNE)
Why did many feel that the MIA’s demands could have been solved much quicker?
- first could be easily obtained through written commitment
- third was discard MIA willing to part w/ for first two
- first come first serve seating already operated in AL city of Mobile (did not entail scrapping segregation)
(FTF)
Why did whites refuse to accept the first come first serve seating arrangement in Montgomery?
- insisted they couldn’t yield w/o violating state/city segregation laws
- Brown decision hardened white attitudes
- whites thought abolishment of race based seating would encourage blacks to up demands
(IBW)
When the last of the negotiations failed in Montgomery what did the city try to do to trick blacks?
falsely announced that the issue had been settled
- plan failed
- three city commissioners than tried to break up the protest by joining white Citizens Council
- police began to harass/arrest drivers who operated car pools for blacks for MIA transport system
- King + Nixon ultimately arrested
(PTPK)
How did the actions taken by the Citizens Council in Montgomery backfire?
- Kings arrest incensed black people
- convinced MIA to keep pressing boycott w/ such high support for leader
KC
What fateful decision did the MIA take following King’s arrest that transformed the character of the boycott?
MIA agreed to challenge segregation laws in court w/ NAACP assistance
- protest no longer became local affair
- was now the cutting edge for the struggle for integration in the South
- MIA knew that it came w/ a big risk as longer the protest more people at risk
- felt emotion behind protest was so strong it wouldn’t die out
(PWMF)
How did Southern white tactics to undermine the Montgomery boycott backfire?
instead of undermining it they strengthened it
- blacks learned that white repression could be turned to their advantage
- were able to maintain tactical initiative + moral advantage in spite of white violence/harassment
(BW)
What was the situation in Montgomery w/ the indictment of the ministers?
115 people + 24 ministers indicted
- those under indictment decided to turn themselves in
- MIA leaders marched themselves to police station
- prosecution of ministers riled up ordinary blacks + grew protest even stronger
(TMP)
What was another reason besides blacks using their tactics against them that white persecution failed?
helped turn Montgomery bus boycott into international story
- dozens of reporters from across the country came to report
- MIA flooded w/ letters of support from everywhere
- checks arrived from abroad as donations
(DMC)
What happened in June 1956?
Browder v. Gayle = three judge federal court ruled city/state bus segregation laws are unconstitutional
- decision affirmed in November by Supreme Court
- MIA would end boycott on Dec. 20 when order went into effect
(DM)
What has been been the NAACP’s argument about the significance of the bus boycott?
NAACP resented that the MIA refused to accept its leadership
- said the lawsuit not economic pressure/mass protest brought about integration
- several historians agree saying Supreme Court was gonna rule against bus segregation soon anyway
- bus boycott didn’t end bus segregation through whole South (many Southern cities ignored Court order)
- MIA would eventually be bogged down by factionalism
(SSBM)
What did the Montgomery Bus Boycott serve as?
the psychological turning point for blacks
- an absence of violent retaliation on the part of whites (Thurgood Marshall had predicted opposite)
- unity had brought strength (institutional importance of black church played key role)
(AU)
What was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
- created Jan. 1957
- made up of black ministers
- cemented new union between black church + civil rights struggle
- nonviolent approach
- melded black Christianity w/ Gandhi like mass action tactics
- led by MLK
(CMCNML)
What was the SCLC attempting to do in the South?
fill the void left by the repression of the NAACP
- AL became SCLC principle base (NAACP has ceased all operation in the state)
What made the SCLC different than the NAACP?
- an indigenous Southern movement (did not have to combat Northern intervention argument)
- based upon the black church (situated religion above politics)
- appealed to American values through appealing to religion (made them less vulnerable to repression)
- loose structure afforded extra layer of protection (no individual members = no members list issues)
(ABAL)
What did King rely on early on in the organization?
Northern advisors
- was open to outside expertise during bus boycott
- Glenn Smiley (white man) persuaded King to get rid of armed guards + embrace nonviolence
(WG)
Who was Bayard Rustin?
- former Communist Party member
- worked w/ Randolph in March on Washington
- would denounce Randolph for ending campaign too soon + but still close allies w/ him
- went to prison for two years during WWII
- went to India after prison became expert on Gandhi
- gave King practical advice on pacifism + nonviolence
- raised money + drafted briefs + put King in front of dozens of Northern supporters
(FWWWWGR)
What was the basic idea behind the SCLC’s strategy?
- would promote mass action throughout the South
- encourage bus boycotts + attack segregation/vote suppression
WE
What were the SCLC’s view of the NAACP?
- had said publicly were not looking to compete w/ NAACP
- privately leaders very critical of NAACP litigation strategy (said it’s too narrow + infective)
- many envisioned it as counterweight to NAACP growing conservatism
(HPM)
What did the roles of Rustin + Ella Baker + Stanley Levison helping King craft the SCLC cause the popular opinion to think?
King was being manipulated by Communists
- trio of New Yorkers were influenced by Communist Party
- Baker had communist friends but also while part of NAACP supported move to ban Communists in org.
- Baker more interested in promoting grass roots activism in any way not thinking of political party
- Rustin was part of Communist Party but resigned when party demanded all out support for WWII
- Levison regarded Communist Party as decaying shell + irrelevant nuisance
(TBBRL)
Why were critics right to suspect a strain of left wing radicalism in MLK?
childhood during Great Depression made him highly anti-capitalistic
- profoundly influenced by Social Gospel + harsh critic of industrial capitalism
- supporter of Marx's critique of capitalism + class consciousness (PS)
Why did King refuse to be bossed around by the New York trio?
knew it would seriously damage movement if it was perceived to be run by Northern radicals
- insisted flamboyant Rustin remained in background
- ultimately dropped both Rustin + Levison from the org.
(IU)
How did King come to dominate the SCLC?
- was the org. only president during lifetime
- board of directors acted more as rubber stamp
- King almost always had last word
- org. promoted a King personality cult
(WBKO)
Why did Ella Baker begin to become critical of the SCLC?
thought it was too dependent on King’s personal achievements not mass action
- also found it difficult to work w/ black ministers (pompous/sexist)
- SCLC most male dominated civil rights org. at that time
(AS)
How did faith play a part in King’s civil rights message?
thought he was an instrument of God’s will
- certain divinity around him
- exploited role as persecuted Christian to the max whenever he got into trouble
- caused black popularity to soar every time
- redemption through self sacrifice lay at the heart of Christian theology
(CECR)
How did the SCLC’s lack of internal democracy also reflect the structure of the black church?
- baptist preacher never answered to bishop
- ministers authority seldom questioned
- minister was a Jesus like figure to be obeyed/adored
(BMM)
How did Montgomery reinforce what King already sensed as a minister?
uncomfortable w/ all the praise he received but knew the symbolic value of his leadership
- people needed to rally around a unifying figure
- knew the success of the SCLC highly depended on his own prestige/image
(PK)
How was the SCLC’s dependence on King also its greatest strength?
- King’s rhetoric allowed him to connect to both Southern blacks/whites better than any other black leader
- praised for leadership shown during Montgomery
- oratory evoked adulation that translated into support for the civil rights movement
(KPO)
How was the SCLC more of a hope than a reality between 1957-60?
- lacked funds so had no full time staff
- coordinating church based affiliates extremely difficult
- wave of bus boycotts failed to materialize
- Montgomery victory had allowed black in other Southern cities to get integration thru only lawsuits
- org. shifted focus to voting after passing of 1957 Civil Rights Act
(LCWMO)
What did the 1957 Civil Rights Act do?
- empowered the Justice Department to sue biased voter registrars
- created a Commission on Civil Rights to investigate complaints of discrimination
(EC)
What was the result of the SCLC’s attempt to mount a regional voter registration drive?
failed mostly
- called the “Crusade for Citizenship”
- evoked only patchy local activity
- Ella Baker said most problems stemmed from org. not using mass resistance
(CEE)
What was King doing during the SCLC struggling years between 1957-60?
spreading the message of nonviolent action
- Montgomery proved nonviolent direct action could unite blacks + disarm whites
- argued litigation alone couldn’t reform the South
(MA)
What were some of the nonviolent protests exhibited by blacks during the 50s?
- boycotts on downtown merchants in Tuskegee
- bus boycott in Tallahassee/Shreveport
- successful NAACP Youth Council sit ins in OKC
(BBS)
How did the NAACP fail to capitalize on the success of nonviolent direct action?
had little faith in its efficacy
What role did the SCLC play in the 60s?
helped popularize/legitimate nonviolent direct action as dominant strategy for civil rights movement
What event sparked the student sit ins?
four Greensboro, NC students ordered coffee at Woolworth’s counter (did not serve blacks at time)
- students were active in civil rights movement
- encouraged by the advice of several older people
- occurred Feb. 1, 1960
- was well rehearsed before hand (had arranged for newspaper reporter to be there)
- refused service by black waitress + refused to get out of seat
(SEOWR)
What was the effect of the Greensboro sit in?
evoked immediate response by fellow Greensboro students at NCAT
- 29 students did sit ins the following day
- students occupied 63 of the 65 available seats on 3rd day
- protests involved more than 300 students by day 5 + spread to nearby Kress store
- both Woolworth + Kress closed their doors that Saturday
(TSPB)
How did the Greensboro sit ins spread nationally?
became the main topic of discussion at black universities nationally
- began happening in states across the South
- about 70,000 participated in total in 1970
(BA)
How did the sit-ins differ symbolically from the bus boycotts?
passive not assertive confrontation w/ segregation
- students put bodies directly in the way of Jim Crow
- did so w/ no reassurance federal courts would back them up (stores private institutions unlike pub. trans.)
- not very clear if Brown decision applied to private institutions
- students were challenging sanctity of private property (sacred American value)
(SDNS)
How did the sit ins also entail a struggle over public space?
- black students backed sit ins by picketing stores + staging marches
- boldly challenged unwritten rule that Southern streets belonged to whites not blacks
- public demonstrations by blacks virtually unheard of ten years earlier
- black students now unafraid of known police brutality that would come w/ actions
- legality of their demonstrations cloudy (1st Amendment unclear on public demonstration freedoms)
(BBPBL)
What was the response by whites to the sit ins?
- many showed violence towards demonstrators
- encouraged by police to act
- police would forcefully break up protests + arrest demonstrators
- about 3600 arrested in total in 1960
(MEPA)
Why did the sit ins not evoke support from older blacks at first?
- many parents not supportive of children putting themselves in harms way
- black university presidents expelled some black student leaders due to pressure from white politicians
- many feared protests would lead to repercussions for black universities
(MBM)
How did the position of older blacks change as the sit ins continued?
many began to rally behind students
- adults raised bail money + backed sit ins by supporting boycotts of downtown stores
- many black college presidents did support students
- NAACP viewed sit ins as unwelcome challenge to organizational hegemony still helped
(AMN)
How did the NAACP support the sit ins?
- urged members to support through picketing + boycotts
- Thurgood Marshall endorsement especially significant (despite strong reservations about direct action)
- Marshall praised students + condemned presidents who expelled them + came to legal defense of arrested
(UTM)
What was the white support shown for the sit ins like?
- Northern press reports of sit ins overwhelmingly positive
- students nonviolent discipline + middle class values impressed both liberals/conservatives
- Northern university students helped by raising money + picketing north branches of Woolworth +moral support
(NSN)
What was the most striking fact about the moral effect of the sit ins?
reached some whites Southerners
- many politicians unable to criticize moral justice behind their actions (cost them in future elections)
- some white Southerners even took radical step of joining civil rights movement
- white students in Greensboro/Tallahassee/New Orleans picketed + were arrested
- whites joined the CORE + SNCC
(MSWW)
How did the sit ins create a massive dent in the structure of segregation?
- Deep South still had too much repression to integrate lunch counters
- upper South though saw sit ins prove effective
- disruption caused by sit ins + economic effect of boycotts hurt the dime stores
- downtown merchants as a whole suffered
- May 16, 1960 = San Antonio becomes 1st southern city to desegregate lunch counters
- 1961 = big victory when Atlanta agreed to integrate
- 1962 = New Orleans agrees to integrate lunch counters
(DUDDMNN)
What occurred from April 15-17, 1960?
200 black students organize at Shaw University to discuss significance of sit ins + how to capitalize
- organized by Ella Baker + SCLC provided principal funding
- some expectation that if students formed new org. it would connected to the SCLC
- Baker believed subjecting students w/ older leadership would stifle their momentum
- Baker urged students to develop group centered leadership not leader central (dig at King)
- led to establishment of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
(OSBBL)
What were the characteristics the SNCC?
Southern + mostly black
- prided itself on informality + lack of hierarchy + looseness of structure
- liked to arrive at decisions through consensus + discussion not voting
- abhorred factionalism + politicking
- deplored cult of leadership around King + SCLC
- remained mostly youth oriented
- much less male dominated (Ella Baker)
(PLADRM)
What was the view about nonviolence shared by members of the SNCC?
viewed it as a practical necessity + useful tool for protest
- did not abjure self defense in any circumstances
- believed like the SCLC that confrontation/direct action was the best way forward for the movement
- unlike SCLCC did little to disguise hatred for NAACP + litigation strategy
(DBU)
How had the Civil Rights Movement leadership changed by 1960?
- NAACP no longer dominant over strategy
- King had become most influential black leader in the South
- SNCC on the cutting edge of the civil rights movement
(NKS)
