Article 6b: The Ties That Bind: How armed groups use violence to socialize fighters (Cohen, 2017)

Question 1

Background

Answer 1

This article describes how collective rape is used to create social bonds/ties between army fighters through a process of combatant socialisation.

Question 2

Design

Answer 2

This study used interview data form former fighters of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Question 3

Socialisation

Answer 3

A process through which actors adopt the norms and rules of a given community.

In this article: the way that gang rape is used as means for creating and sustaining armed groups (given communities), by communicating norms of masculinity, virility, brutality and loyalty.

Question 4

Combatant socialisation

Answer 4

Armed groups often forcibly recruit their members, resulting in a group lacking cohesion, loyalty and mutual trust. Minimal social cohesion is needed for functioning, establishing trust , collective responsibility and reducing munities (muiterijen).
Violent acts are used to build trust and cohesion among members. Gang rape is often used as a hazing ritual: a recurring practice to integrate new members. It fosters mutual esteem and symbolises loyalty to the group. The initiation may result form leaders or members who are inclined to such behaviour.

Question 5

Positive effects of using gang rape as combatant socialisation

Answer 5

• Protection in a hostile environment
• Group acceptance
• Sends a signal of loyalty and commitment
• Reinforces the group’s structure under chaotic conditions.

Question 6

Why sexual violence and not other forms of violence?

Answer 6

• Militarised masculinity: sexual violence specifically communicates norms of masculinity, virility, brutality and loyalty.
• Gendered dynamics: sexual violence reflects highly gendered norms within armed groups.
• Restoring masculine status: abducted fighters often face threats to their manhood, seeking to restore this through visible aggression (like gang rape).
• Rape’s unique role: rape, as opposed to other forms of violence is particularly effective in instilling norms of masculinity and breaking ties form their past lives.
• Creates bonds within the groups: by targeting outsides, reinforcing insider cohesion.
• Lack of alternatives: gang rape is accessible and effortful.

Question 7

Individual level resources to resist violent socialisation

Answer 7

There are certain factors that increase a person’s agency, enabling to resist the social pressures of violent norms in armed groups:
- Age: younger recruits are more susceptible to social pressures due to separation from family ties and eagerness to fit in.
- Previous socialisation: lack of previous socialisation (disrupted schooling, fragmented families) are more vulnerable to adopting violent behaviours. Positive early experience can be protective factors.
- Physical insecurity: a lack of basic physical needs (food, safety) heightens physical vulnerability, fostering aggression as a response to perceived threats of deprivation.

Question 8

Resistance to social pressures

Answer 8

Often leads to social repercussion, like teasing or being labeled as non-masculine. The desire to avoid shame or to be accepted pushed many to participate in the violence. Resistance indicates individual agency.

Question 9

The degree of internalisation of group norms and gang rape

Answer 9

• Type 1: surface-level adaptation to group norms and behaviours without deep personal internalisation. Is more situationally and often due to external pressures.
• Type 2: rape is fully internalised by members when it regularly occurs in the absence of order, coercion or threats (often seen after prolonged exposure).

Question 10

Results

Answer 10

• Committing sexual assault is positively correlated with being forced to join a violent group.
• Combatants who were recruited at a younger age were more vulnerable to violent socialisation.
• Combatants who lacked formal socialisation are more vulnerable to violent socialisation (but not enough data available).
• Combatants who reported greater physical insecurity are more vulnerable to violent socialisation.