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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

hydroxyl group

A

OH

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2
Q

carbonyl group

A

C - - O

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3
Q

carboxyl group

A

COOH

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4
Q

macromolecule types

A

carbohydrates- monosaccharides, polysaccharides; CHO

lipids- glycerol fatty acids, no polymers; CHOP

nucleic acids- nucleotides, DNA and RNA; CHONP

proteins- amino acids, polypeptides; CHONS

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5
Q

groups in carbohydrates

A

carbonyl group and hydroxyl groups

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6
Q

storage polysaccharides

A

plants store starch; animals store glycogen

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7
Q

structural polysaccharides

A

cellulose: tough substance that forms cell walls
chitin: forms exoskeleton of arthropods

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8
Q

amino acid groups

A

amino group, carboxyl group, variable side chain (R)

*side chains interact to determine shape and function of proteins

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9
Q

nucleotide parts

A

nitrogenous base (either pyrimidines or purines), five carbon sugar, phosphate group

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10
Q

nucleus

A

contains chromosomes

nucleolus is dense region where rRNA is synthesized

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11
Q

ER

A

synthesize membranes

compartmentalize cell

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12
Q

lysosomes

A

hydrolyze macromolecules and recycle cell materials

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13
Q

peroxisomes

A

catalyze reactions that produce H2O2

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14
Q

cytoskeleton

A

anchor organelles

allow for movement of vesicles and organelles and/or the whole cell

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15
Q

passive transport examples

A

diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion

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16
Q

active transport examples

A

pumps
contransport
exocytosis
endocytosis

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17
Q

catabolic vs anabolic pathways

A

catabolic: pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
anabolic: pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler molecules

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18
Q

induced fit

A

enzymes will change the shape of their active site to allow the substrate to bind better

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19
Q

enzyme catabolism

A

enzyme helps break down complex molcules

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20
Q

enzyme anabolism

A

enzyme helps build complex molecules

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21
Q

optimal conditions

A

higher temps and certain pH allow for enzymes to function optimally

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22
Q

cofactors vs inhibitors

A

cofactors are non protein molecules that assist in enzyme function (coenzymes are organic cofactors)

inhibitors reduce the activity of a certain enzyme (competitive, non competitive,

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23
Q

photosynthesis

A

location is chloroplast

stomata are pores in leaves that allow CO2 and O2 out

stroma is fluid, thylakoids are stacks of grana, chlorophyll is green pigment in thylakoid membranes

6CO2+6H2O+energy—> C6H12O6+6O2

stages: light reactions and calvin cycle

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24
Q

light reactions

A

occur in thylakoid membrane; converts solar energy to chemical energy (NADPH and ATP)

chlorophyll absorbs photon of light and electron is boosted to excited attar so realized energy and this repeats until it reaches P680 pair of chlorophyll a molecules and electron is transferred to primary electron acceptor; H2O had been split into two electrons, two H+, and an O

excited electrons pass to PS I via electron transport chain

fallen electron make energy for ATP; ATP synthase uses H+ to make ATP

in PS I light energy excited electrons to P700 and electron go down second electron transport chain; NADP+ reductive ctalyzes transfer of electrons from Fd to NADP+; plus H+ to make NADPH

makes O2, ATP, and NADPH

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25
Q

calvin cycle

A

uses ATP and NADH to reduce CO2 to sugar (G3P); synthesis of one G3P needs cycle three times

carbon fixation:
CO2 is attached to RuBP to form 3-phosphoglycerate

reduction:
3-phosphglucerate is phosphorylated by ATP and becomes 1,3-phosphoglyceeate; NADPH donate electrons to 1,3-phosphoglycerate and reduces it to G3P; six G3P are formed but only one is net gain

regeneration of RuBP:
other five G3P are used to regenerate three RuBP; cycle is ready to take in CO2 again

makes G3P, ADP, NADP+

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26
Q

C4 and CAM plants

A

C4: stomata partially close to conserve water

CAM: open stomata at night and close during day

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27
Q

cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6+6O2—>6CO2+6H2O

glycolysis:
occurs in cytosol
splits glucose (6C) into 2 pyruvates (3C)

pyruvate oxidation:
if oxygen is present, pyruvate enters mitochondria; pyruvates is oxidized into acetyl coA; CO2 and NADH produced

citric acid cycle/krebs cycle:
occurs in mitochondrial matrix
turns acetyl CoA into citrate and releases CO2; also produces ATP; electrons transferred to NADH and FADH2

oxidative phosphorylation:
consists of ETC and chemiosmosis
ETC is located in inner membrane of mitochondria; as electrons fall, proteins alternate between reduced and oxidized state; final electron acceptor is oxygen; H+/proton gradient created as proteins shuttle electrons and pump H+. chemiosmosis involves ATP synthase so as H+ flow though ATP is synthesized

28
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

generates ATP using ETC in absence of oxygen

happens to prokaryotes and final electron acceptors are sulfates or nitrates

29
Q

fermentation

A

generates ATP without ETC

extension of glycolysis by recycling NAD+

30
Q

ways of cell contact

A

direct contact
local signaling
long-distance signaling

31
Q

cell signaling stages

A

reception: ligand binds to receptor
transduction: signal is converted
response: cell response is offered

32
Q

types of receptors

A 
plasma membrane (G protein coupled receptors and ligand-gated ion channels)
intracellular
33
Q

signal transduction pathway regulation

A

phosphorylation by protein kinase and dephosphorylation by protein phosphotase

34
Q

organization of DNA

A

before cell division cells must organize and package their DNA

DNA wraps around his tone proteins to form nucleosides that form chromatic which condense into chromosomes

centromere: region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached
kinetochore: proteins attached to centromere that link each sister chromatid to mitotic spindle

35
Q

types of chromosomes

A

autosome and sex chromosomes

36
Q

main sources of genetic variation in meiosis

A

synapsis/crossing over: homologous chromosomes pair up and connect to form a tetrad and DNA is exchanged

independent orientation (metaphase I); tetrads line up at metaphase plate

random fertilization: any sperm can fertilize any egg

37
Q

epistasis

A

phenotypic expression of gene atone locus affects gene at another locus

38
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

effect of two or more genes acting on a single phenotype

39
Q

DNA structure

A

backbone made of sugar-phosphate and center made of nucleotide pairings

40
Q

DNA replication

A

helipads separates DNA, single strand binding proteins prevent and topoisomerase DNA from resisting being unwinded

primase adds RNA primers then DNAP III adds DNA bases; on lagging strand, okazaki fragments are DNA added by DNAP III

DNAP I fills in gaps of where RNA primers have been removed by adding DNA

ligase seals up fragments in both strands

41
Q

since there is no way to finish replication on the 5’ end of the lagging strand because DNAP III can only add nucleotides on the 3’ end, DNA would become shorter over generations. what prevents this?

A

telomerase adds telomeres that do not code for genes but are repeating units of short nucleotide sequences

42
Q

transcription steps

A

initiation: RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter region of DNA
elongation: RNA polymerase opens up DNA and reads the triplet code of the template strand; pairs complementary RNA nucleotides
termination: RNA polymerase transcribes sequence of DNA called the polyadenylation signal sequence

43
Q

pre-mRNA modifications

A

5’ cap: 5’ end of pre-mRNA receives a modified cap

poly-A tail: 3’ end of pre-mRNA receives adenine nucleotides

RNA splicing: sections of pre-mRNA called introns are removed and then exons are joined together so a single gene can code for more than one kind of polypeptide

44
Q

sites of large subunit of ribosome

A

amino acid site, polypeptide site, exit site

45
Q

steps of translation

A

initiation: small ribsomal subunit binds to mRNA and charged tRNA binds to start codon on mRNA
elongation: tRNA comes into A site and mRNA is moved through ribosome and it’s codons are read; tRNA moves to P site tRNA in P site goes to E site
termination: stope codon in mRNA reaches A site

46
Q

genetic drift

A

chance events that cause a change in allele frequency’s from one generation to the next

bottleneck effect
founder effect

47
Q

modes of natural selection

A

directional selection
stabilizing selection
dispersive selection

48
Q

comparative morphology and homology

A

comparative morphology: analysis of the structures of living and extinct organisms

homology: characteristics in related species that

49
Q

types of homology

A

embryonic homology: many species have similar embryonic development

vestigial structures: structures that are conserved even though they no longer have a use

molecular homology: many species share similar DNA and amino acid sequences

50
Q

homologous structures

A

characteristics that are similar in two species because they share a common ancestor

51
Q

convergent evolution

A

similar adaptations that have evolved in distantly related organisms due to similar environments

52
Q

analogous structures

A

structures that are similar but have separate evolutionary origins

53
Q

modes of speciation

A

allopathic speciation: physical barrier divides population or small population is separated from main population; populations are geographically isolated so prevents gene flow and likely caused by natural disasters

sympatric speciation: new species evolved while still inhabiting same geographic region as ancestral species; usually due to exploitation of a new niche

54
Q

speciation occurs because of reproductive isolation; two types of reproductive isolation are

A

prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or hinder fertilization (habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, or gametic isolation)

postzygotic barriers:: prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable and fertile adult (reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown)

55
Q

paces of speciation

A

punctuated equilibrium: when evolution occurs rapidly after a long period of stasis

gradualism: when evolution occurs slowly over many years

56
Q

types of evolution/speciation

A

divergent evolution
adaptive radiation
convergent evolution

57
Q

RNA world hypothesis

A

proposes RNA could have been earliest genetic mayerial

58
Q

innate behaviors

A

fixed action patterns: sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a stimulus

migration

signal: stimulus generated and transmitted from one animal to another

directed movements: movements toward or away from a stimulus

59
Q

learned behaviors

A

imprinting: long-lasting behavioral response to an individual

spatial learning: establishing memories based upon spatial structure of animal’s surroundings

associative learning: ability to associate one environmental feature with another

social learning: learning through observations and imitations of observed behaviors

60
Q

responses in plants

A

phototropism: directional response that allows plants to grow towards light
photoperiodism: allows plants to develop in response to day length; plants flower only at certain times

physical and chemical defenses against herbavory

pH of soil affects plants

61
Q

interspecific interactions

A 
competition
predation
herbivory
symbiosis
facilitation
62
Q

what is species diversity dependent on?

A

species richness and relative abundance

63
Q

keystone species

A

not usually abundant, but other species in an ecosystem rely on them because of their important ecological niches

64
Q

disturbances

A

ecological succession: gradual process by which the species composition of a community changes and develops over time after a disturbancd

65
Q

main threats to biodiversity

A

habitat loss
invasive species
over harvesting
global change

66
Q

biogeographical factors

A

large scale factors that contribute to a range of diversity observed

latitude: species are more diverse in tropics than at poles due to climate
area: larger areas are more diverse because they offer greater diversity of habitats

ap biology (12 decks)

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