Anatomy and Physiology (Complete) Flashcards
What is anatomy?
The study of body structure, and the relationship between structures of living organisms.
What is physiology?
The study of living organisms, and their parts and function.
What are the levels of structural organisms, from smallest to largest?
Chemical Cellular Tissue Organ Organ System Organism
What is catabolism?
Breaking down
What is anabolism?
Building up
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protect Regulate temperature Eliminate some waste Detect sensations Help produce vitamin D
What is included in the integumentary system?
The external body covering
What is included in the skepetal system?
Bones, joints, and ligaments of the body
What is the function of the skeletal system?
Support and protection
Aid in body movement
Give rise to blood cells
Store fats
What is the function of the muscular system?
Produces body movement
Stabolizes position
Generates heat
What is the function of the nervous system?
Fast acting control system
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
Circulate blood to deliver O2 and nutrients and to remove CO2 and other waste products
What is the correct anatomical positioning?
Body erect with feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward.
What is prone body position?
Body laying horizontal, face down
What is supine body position?
The body is laying horizontal, face up.
What is the sagittal body section?
A cut made lengthwise or on the longitudinal plane of the body. Divides the body into left and right parts.
What is the midsagittal body section?
A cut made alon the medial plane. Diviging the body into equal left and right parts.
What is the frontal section (coronal plane) of the body?
A cut made along the longitudinal plane of the body, dividing it into front and back parts.
What is the tranverse section of the body?
A cut made along a horizontal plane, dividing the body into upper and lower parts.
Where is the superior part of the body?
Towards the head or upper body
What is the inferior part of the body?
Away from the head, or the lower body structure.
What is the anterior part of the body?
Towards the front of the body
What is the posterior part of the body?
Towards the back of the body
What is the medial part of the body?
Towards or at the midline of the body
What is the lateral part of the body?
Away from the midline of the body.
What two subdivisions are included in the dorsal body cavity?
Cranial cavity and Spinal cavity
What is the cranial cavity?
The space inside the bony skull, protecting the brain
What is the Spinal cavity?
Extends from the crainal cavity to the end of the veretebral column, protects the spinal cord.
What is included in the ventral body cavity?
Contains all structures within the chest and abdomen.
What are the two subdivisions of the ventral body cavity?
Thoracic cavity
Abdominal Pelvic cavity
What is the thoracic cavity?
Organs are somewhat prtected by the rib cage
Seperated from the rest of the ventral cavity by the diaphragm
What is the abdominal pelvic cavity?
Inferior to the diaphragm
How much water is approximately in living cells?
60% water
What are the 3 main regions of all cells?
- Plasma membrane
- Nucleus
- Cytoplasm
How is the double phospholipid layer of the plasma membrane arranged, and what is the purpose of this?
“Tail to tail” - tails are hydrophobic
Makes protein molecules float
What does hydrophilic mean?
Water loving
What does hydrophobic mean?
Water hating
What are microvilli?
Tiny fingerlike projections that greatly increase the cell surface area for absorption
What are the three kinds of membrane junctions?
Tight membrane junctions
Desosomes
Gap Junctions
What are tight membrane junctions?
They are impermeable, leak proof sheets that prevent substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells.
What are desosomes?
Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart
What are gap junctions?
Mainly functions as communication and are commonly seen in the heart.
What is the main function of the nucleus?
It is the control center of the cell, contains DNA
What are the three areas of the nucleus?
Nuclear envelope
Nucleoli
Chromatin
What is the nuclear envelope?
Selectively permable, and contains nuclear pores
What is a nucleoli?
Sites where ribosomes are assembled.
Where in the cell are chromatin?
scattered in the nucleus
What do chromatin consist of?
a network or loose bumpy threads of DNA and protein
What is the cytoplasm?
The semi-fluid like structure located outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
What are the three major elements of the cytoplasm?
Cytosol
Organelles
Inclusions
What is the cytosol?
A semitransparent fluid in which the other elements are suspended.
What are inclusions?
Chemical substances that may or may not be present.
What are cytoplasmic organelles?
Specialized organelles, each with its own specialized function for maintaining the cell.
What are the mitochondria responsible for?
The formation of ATP which provides energy for all cellular activities.
What are ribosomes made of?
Protein and RNA
Where are ribosomes found in the cell?
free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
A system of fluid filed tubules in the cytoplasm that carries substances from one part of the cell to another.
What are the two kinds of Endoplasmic reticulum?
Rough ER
Smooth ER
What covers the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
ribosomes
What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
The synthesis and breakdown of cholesterol, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs.
What is the appearence of the golgi apparatus?
A stack of flattened membranous sacs found close to the nucleus.
What is the major function of the golgi apparatus?
To modify and package proteins in specific ways depending on their final destination
What are the membranous sacs of the golgi apparatus called?
cisternae
What is the main function of lysosomes in the cell?
the cell demolition sites
What are abundant in lysosomes and why?
White blood cells, to engulf the bacteria and other harmful substances.
What are perioxisomes?
Membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes, that use oxygen to break down harmful substances like alcohol
Where are perioxisomes most abundant in the body?
The liver and kidneys
What are the three types of cytoskeleton elements?
microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
microtubules
What are cilia?
finger-like cellular extensions that move material across the cell surface
Where are cilia commonly found?
In the respiratory system
What are flagellum, and where are they found?
long, whip-like projections that propels the cell, found on sperm
What are pseudopods?
Protrusions of the cell surface that aid in phagocytosis
What is passive transport?
No energy is required for the cell to be transported
What is diffusion?
Particles move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. No energy required.
What is osmosis?
Simple diffusion of water
What is active transport?
The cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the transport process
What is exocytosis?
Materials are moved out of the cell, parkaged in a membranous vesicle by the golgi aparatus
What is endocytosis?
Extracellular substances are engulfed in a vesicle, then it moves to the cytoplasm here it fuses with a lysosome and is digested.
What are the two kinds of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis - cell eating
Pinocytosis - cell drinking
What is interphase?
When the cell grows and carries on its metabolic processes.
What happens during prophase?
As division occurs, chromatin begin to coil and shorten into visible bar like bodies called chromosomes. The centrioles seperate and move towards opposite ends of the cell
What happens during metaphase?
Chromosomes cluster and align at the center of the cell
What happens during anaphase?
The centromeres that have held the chromatids split and move to opposite ends of the cell.
What happens during telophase?
Chromosomes uncoil and become thread again, spindle breaks down.
What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
Meiosis is basically just mitosis, but with sex cells. PMAT occurs twice as well.
What are the base pairs of the nitrogen-containing bases in DNA?
A-T
G-C
What are the four nitrogenous bases of DNA?
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
Describe the appearance of DNA
Double Helix
Coiled like spiral staircase.
What is the master blueprint for protein synthesis?
DNA
How does RNA differ from DNA?
RNA is a single strand, has ribose sugar and a Uracil base instead of a thyamine.
What are the three types of RNA?
tRNA (transfer)
rRNA (ribosomal)
mRNA (messenger)
What is histology?
The study of tissue
What are the four main types of tissue?
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
What are the four functions of epithelial tissue?
Protection
Absorption
Filtration
Secretion
Where is epithelial tissue in the body?
Outer surface of both and internal organs, and inside the digestive tract and blood vessels.
Does epithelial tissue have a nerve supply?
NO
What are the three types of cell layers within epithelial tissue?
Simple, Stratified, and pseudo-stratified.
How many layers is simple epithelial tissue?
ONE
How many layers is stratified epithelial tissue?
Multiple layers
How many layers is pseudostratified epithelial tissue?
One layer
What are the three cell shape types of epithelial tissue?
Squamous (squished down circles)
Cubodial (uniform squares or circles)
Columnar (Rectangles)
What are 5 types of connective tissue?
Loose connective tissue Adipose Cartilage Bone Blood
What is loose connective tissue?
Tissue that joins bone structures, thin filling between body parts.
What is adipose tissue?
Releases fat when energy is needed, used for protection and insulation.
What are the three types of connective tissue fibers?
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
What are the two kinds of nervous tissue cells?
Neurons
Neuroglial
Which type of tissue regenerates esaily?
Epithelial, and fibrous connective tissue and bone.
What type of tissue regenerates poorly?
Skeletal muscle
What types of tissue are replaced with scar tissue instead of regenerating?
Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue
What are the two kinds or tissue membranes?
Epithelial and connective
What membrane is the skin?
Cutaneous membranes
What are the three types of epithelial membranes?
Mucous membranes
Serous membranes
Cutaneous membranes
What are mucosa?
Mucous membranes that live body cavities that open to the outside.
What is serous membranes?
Smooth membrane consisting of a thin layer of cells which excrete fluid.
What is the one type of connective tissue membrane?
Synovial membrane
Where are synovial membranes found?
At freely movable joints
What is included in the integumentary system?
The skin and its accessory structures, like hair, nails.
What are the three parts of skin, from outside in??
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneous
What are some functions of the skin?
Protects against injury Prevents dehydration Maintains body temperature Sweat glands Protect from sun
What is the bodies first line of defense?
SKIN
What are the four principal cells of the epidermis?
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Langerhans
Merkel Cells
What are keratinocytes of the epidermis?
Produce keratin to protect the skin and tissue from heat and chemicals.
What percentage of the epidermis is made up of keratinocytes?
90%
What are melanocytes in the epidermis?
Produce melanin which gives skin its colour and protects against UV rays
What are the langerhans of the epidermis?
Middle section that performs immunological attack against foreign substances.
What do the merkel cells of the epidermis do?
Detect touch sensations
What are the three pigments of the skin?
Melanin
Carotene
Hemoglobin
What colours do melanin make the skin?
Pale yellow, brown, or black.
What are freckles?
Accumulated melanin
What are the three layers of the shaft and root of hair?
Medulla
Cortex
Cuticle
What is the medulla layer of hair?
Inner layer, 2-3 layers containing pigment and air spaces.
What is the cortex layer of hair?
The middle later, contains pigment in dark hair but mostly air in grey or white hair.
What are nails?
Hard, keratinized epidermal cells.
What are the three parts to a nail?
The nail body, the free edge, and the nail root.
What is the nail body?
Portion of the nail that is visible
What is the free edge of the nail?
The part extending past the edge of the digit
What is the nail root?
The part of the nail buried in the skin
What is the whiteish crescent shaped area of the nail body called?
The lunula
What are the two kinds of wound healing?
Epidermal wound healing and deep wound healing
What are the four phases of deep wound healing?
Inflammatory phase
Migratory phase
Proliferative phase \
Maturation phase
What happens during the inflammatory phase of deep wound healing?
A blood clot forms to stop bleeding, inflammation occurs.
What happens during the migratory phase of deep wound healing?
The clot becomes a scab to bridge the wound
The process of scar tissue formation is called what?
Fibrosis
What are the characteristics of a first degree burn?
Involves only the epidermis
Mild pain and redness, no blistering
Skin functions remain intact
Healing occurs in 3-6 days
What are the characteristics of a second degree burn?
Destroys part of the epidermis and possibly the dermis
Redness, pain, blistering
Some skin function is lost
if no infection, healing occurs in 3-4 weeks
Scarring may occur
What are the characteristics of a third degree burn?
Destroys the epidermis and the underlying dermis
Edema, burnt area can be numb.
Skin graft may be required
Can be fatal due to infection
What does SPF stand for?
Sun Protection Factor
How does sunblock work?
What about sunscreen?
Works by reflecting UV rays
Sunscreen absorbs the UV rays and renders them harmless.
What is a cancerous neoplasm called?
Malignant
What is a noncancerous neoplasm called?
Benign
Malignant tumors which arise from epithelial cells is called what?
Carcinomas
Cancers that arise from muscle cells and connective tissues are called what?
Sarcomas
What are the three kinds of skin cancer?
Basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Malignant melanoma
What can you watch for when you suspect you may have malignant melanoma?
ABCDE Asymmetry Border Irregularity Colour variegation Diameter greater than 6mm Elevation above surrounding tissue
What are the two divisions of the skeletal system?
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
What are some functions of bones?
Support the body
Protect internal organs
Red blood cell formation
Movement
How many bones does the adult skeleton have?
206
What are the two basic types of bone tissue?
Compact bone and spongy bone
Describe long bones and give an example
Longer than wide
Contain mostly compact bone.
EX. Femur, humerus
Describe short bones and give an example
Generally cube shaped
Contain mostly spongy bone
EX. Carpals, tarsals
Describe flat bones and give an example
Thin and flattened
Usually curved
Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
EX. Skull, ribs
Describe irregular bones and give an example
Irregular shape
Do not fit into other categories
EX Vertebrae and hip
What is the diaphysis of the long bone, and what is it composed of?
The shaft of the bone
Composed of compact bone
What is the epiphysis of the long bone, and what is it composed of?
The ends of the bone
Composed mostly of spongy bone
What is the periosteum of the long bone?
The outside covering of the diaphysis, a fibrous connective tissue membrane
What are the Sharpey’s fibers of the long bone?
They secure the periosteum to the underlying bone
What is articular cartilage of the long bone?
Covers the external surface and decreases friction at joint surfaces - made of hyaline cartilage
What is the medullary cavity in long bones contain in adults? In infants?
Adults = yellow marrow (fat) Infants = red marrow ( blood cell formation)
What is an osteon (Haversian System)?
A unit of bone
What are lacunae’s of the bone?
Cavities containing bone cells arranged in concentric rings
What are lamellae’s of the bone?
Rings around the central canal
What are the canaliculi’s of the bone?
Tiny canals that radiate from the central canal to the lacunae, a form of transport system
What are epiphyseal plates?
Allow for growth of long bone during childhood
What are ostercytes?
Mature bone cells
What are osterblasts?
Bone-forming cells
What are osterclasts?
Bone-destroying ells
What is another name for a joint?
Articulation
What are the three groups of joints?
Synarthrosis
Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrosis
What are synthrosis joints, and what is an example?
Joints that do not permit movement
Skull bones
What are amphiarthrosis joints? What is an example?
Joints that permit slight movement
Ribs
What is another name for diathrosis?
Synovial joints
What are diathrosis joints?
Freely movable joints
Knee, elbow
What kind of joints are most abundant in the body?
Diathrosis
What are the three basic muscle types?
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac
What are responsible for the contraction of muscles?
microfilaments
What is the endomysium?
The connective tissue wrapping round a single muscle fiber
What is a fascicle?
A bundle of muscle fibers
What is the perimysium?
The connective tissue wrappings around the bundle of fibres
What is the epimysium?
The connective tissue wrappings that cover the entire skeletal muscle
What is the fascia?
The outside of the epimysium, which is the skeletal muscle connective tissue wrapping.
What are some smooth muscle characteristics?
No striations
Single nucleus
Spindle shaped
Involuntary
What are some cardiac muscle characteristics?
Striations
Single nucleus
Involuntary
Only in the heart
What are the four main functions of muscles?
Produce movement
Maintain posture
Stabilize joints
Generate heat
What is the sarcolemma?
The specialized plasma membrane of skeletal muscle
What are myofibril?
Bundles of microfliaments
What is the sacromere?
Contractile unit of muscle fiber
What are the thick filaments of the skeletal muscle called?
Myosin filaments
What are the thin filaments of the skeletal muscle called?
Actin filaments
What is the nervous system?
A complex network of billions of neurons
What is an axon?
A long extension of a nerve cell, takes information away from the body
What are the dendrites?
Bring information to the cell body
What is myelin? What is it made of?
Coats and insulates the axon. Made of Schwann’s cells
What are the three main states of neurons?
Polarized
Depolarized
Repolarized
What happens during the polarization of a cell?
Resting state with a negative charge inside the cell and positive outside the cell.
What happens during depolarization of the cell?
Becomes more positive, pushes Na+ ions rush into the cell, making the inside of the neuron more positive
What happens during repolarization of the cell?
Positive charges escape, NA+ is transported out of the cell, K+ in the cell, and the cell is in a resting state
What are the two divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What are the two divisions of the PNS?
Somatic and autonomic systems
What is the somatic division of the nervous system?
VOLUNTARY
Sending and relaying signals which we can control to achieve an effect
What is the autonomic division of the nervous system?
INVOLUNTARY
Deals with changes in the internal environment
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic system
What are the two parts of the CNS?
Brain
Spinal Cord
What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?
Thought, voluntary movement, reasoning, and perception
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
Movement, balance, posture
What is the hypothalamus responsible for?
Body temp, emotions, hunger, thirst circadian rhythms
What is the thalamus responsible for?
Sensory processing and movement
What is the limbic system responsible for?
Emotions
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
Memory and learning
What is the basal ganglia responsible for?
Coordinating movement
What are the parts of the brainstem?
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
What is the brainstem responsible for?
functions necessary for survival
What is the medulla oblongata responsible for?
Relay station between the spinal cord and the brain.
What is the midbrain responsible for?
Vision, audition, eye movement, body movement
What is the pons responsible for?
Links different parts of the brain - a relay station between the medulla and the structures of the brain.
What is the minimum length requirement for chronic pain?
Three months
What nerves detect and portray pain?
Nocireceptors
What is MS?
Inflammation of nervous tissue, loss of myelin.
What is the anterior chamber of the eye?
Area in front of the cornea and in back by the lens - filled with aqueous
What is the Canal of Schlemm of the eye?
The passageway for the aqueous fluid to leave the eye
What is the choroid of the eye?
The inner coat between the sclera and the retina - carried blood vessels
What is the conjunctiva of the eye?
A clear membrane covering the white of the eye
What is the iris?
The coloured portion of the eye - gets bigger to let more light in, or smaller to restrict light
What is the macula of the eye?
Small area in the retina that provides the most central acute vision
What is myopia?
Nearsightedness (cant see far)
What is hyperopia?
Farsightedness
What is the most common refractive error?
Astigmatism
Describe glaucoma
Disease of the optic nerve - can result in blindness. Risk factor is IOP
What are cataracts?
A clouding of the lens of the eye
What is conjunctivitis?
Pink eye - infection and inflammation of the conjunctiva
What seperates the ear canal from the middle ear?
The eardrum
What are the ossicles?
The three tiniest bones in the body that amplify sound through vibration
What two organs make up the inner ear?
The semicircular canals and the cochlea
What is the purpose of the semicircular canals?
Balance
What is the purpose of the cochlea?
Convery pressure to electrical impulses to the auditory nerve
What is otitis Media?
eustacian tube dysfunction -
The highest incidence of otitis media happens in what age group?
Preschool children and graduallt decreases after age 6
What is Meniere’s Disease?
An imbalance of fluid in the sacs on the inner ears
What is Otitis Externa / Swimmers ear?
Infection of the outer ear
What are the organs of the endocrine system?
Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis
What does the pineal gland regulate?
Sleep patterns
What does the thyroid gland regulate?
Metabolsim
What does the parathyroid gland regulate?
Calcium levels
Wat does the thymus regulate?
Immunity
Wat does the adrenal gland regulate?
Stress levels
What is the largest gland?
Pancreas
What two types of hormones are within the endocrine system?
One composed of protein
One composed of steroid
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
TRH GnRH GHRH CRH somatostatin dopamine
What is known as the master gland of the body?
The pituitary gland
What hormones are produced in the Anterior pituitary lobe?
Groth hormone Prolactin ACTH TSH FH LH
What hormones are produces in the posterior pituitary lobe?
Oxytocin and ADH
What does the pineal gland produce?
Melantonin
What are the three fundamental physiological processes that the thyroid gland affects?
Cellular differentiation
Growth
Metabolism
What hormones are producted by the thyroid gland?
T3 (Triiodothyronine)
T4 (Thyroxine)
Calcitonin
How many parathyroid glands are there? Where are they?
4 - embedded within the thyroid gland
What hormone does th thymus produce?
Thymosin
What hormones does the adrenal cortex produce?
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Androgens
What hormones are produced in the adrenal medulla?
epnephrine and norepinephrine
What part of the pancreas produces hormones?
The Islets of Langerhans
What hormones does the Islets of Langerhans produce?
A cells = glucagon
B cells = insulin
D cells = somatostatin
What hormone are pregnancy tests trying to detect?
HCG
The average heart pumps how many liters of blood every minute?
5L
What are the 5 major functions of the circulatory system
Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport Nutrient and waste product transport Disease protection and healing Hormone delivery Body temp regulation
What are the four components of blood?
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Liquid plasma
What are erythrocytes?
Red blood cells
What are leukocytes?
White blood cells
What are thrombocytes?
Platelets
What percentage of blood is made up of red blood cells?
45%
What is the lifespan of red blood cells?
120 days
What percentage of blood is made up of white blood cells?
1%
What is the lifespan of white blood cells?
1-3 days
What are the four blood types, and what are their antigens and antibodies?
A = Angigen A and Antibody B B = Antigen B and Antibody A AB = Antigen A&B and no Antibodies O = No antigens and Antibodies A&B
What blood type is considered to be the universal donor?
Type O negative
What blood type is considered to be the universal reciever?
AB positive
What is the most common blood type in canada?
O positive
What is the least common blood type in canada?
AB negative
What are the three major types of blood vessels?
Arteries, veins and capillaries
What is the difference between an artery and a vein?
Oxygenated blood
Thicker
More elastic
More muscular
What is the name of the largest artery, and where is it located?
Aorta - connected to the hearts left ventricle
What connects arteries to capillaries?
Arterioles
What is the smallest and thinnest blood vessels? Why are they like this?
Capillaries - Are small for the exchange of gas, nutrients, and waste products
What are the two largest veins in the body?
Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
What is the difference between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava?
Superior carries blood from the upper half of the body, and Inferior carries blood from the lower half od the body.
What connects veins to capillaries?
Venules
What does the right atrium do?
Recieves oxygen poor blood from the body and pumps it into the right ventricle
What does the right ventricle do?
Pumpes oxygen poor blood to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs
What does the left atrium do?
Recieves oxygen rich blood from the lungs, pumps into the left ventricle
What does the left ventricle do?
Pumps oxygen rich blood to the body
What are the layers of the heart, from outside to inside?
Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium
What is the Epicardium?
The outer protective layer of the heart
