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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Why using a light microscope to produce an image to the magnification of x20,000 would be of little use

A

low resolution; ora
(close) points not easily distinguished;
wavelength (of visible light) is too long;
max resolution of light microscope =, 200 nm / 0.2 µm; A anything close
no more detail visible than seen at, ×1500 / ×1000;

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2
Q

Describe what happens within the vacuole after it fuses with the lysosome

A 
enzymes / named enzymes / lysins;
acid / low pH;
digestion; A breaking down
breaking, peptide / glycosidic / ester, bond; R if in wrong context
hydrolysis;
soluble / named, products;
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3
Q

Ovary cells contain large amounts of endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Suggest the importance of this in using these cells for the production of Factor VIII.

A 
(rough) ER has ribosomes; R produces
for, protein synthesis / translation;
ER transports protein through cell;
forms vesicles;
for transport to / forming, Golgi;
(in Golgi) modification of protein / glycosylation;
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4
Q

the stage in mitosis that immediately follows prophase

A

metaphase

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5
Q

the behaviour of the chromosomes in metaphase

A

individual) chromosomes align at,
metaphase plate / equator / centre (of cell);
join to, spindle / microtubules;
by centromeres;

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6
Q

Features of the lung that permit efficient gas exchange

A

many, air spaces / alveoli;
large surface area; R ref to surface area to volume ratio
thin wall of, alveolus / capillary; A one cell thick R ‘thin wall’ on its own
good blood supply / large capillary network;
air passage / bronchiole;
capillary close proximity to alveolus;

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7
Q

At a certain point, the student was asked to breathe in as deeply as possible and then breathe out as much as possible. What is this measuring

A

vital capacity

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8
Q

Explain how differences in SA:V ratio have influenced the need for transport systems in mammals

A

diffusion not adequate / AW / ora;
as not enough area (relative to volume); ora
distance too great / cells deep in body / AW; ora, R large unqualified
mass flow system needed;
transport / blood (vascular), systems, link, the parts of the body /
named parts;
e.g. of substance needing to be transported; R ‘gases’ / ‘waste’ / ‘food’
ref to activity / high metabolic rate, of mammals;

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9
Q

parts of the mammalian body where the surface area is relatively large to allow effective functioning

A 
alveoli
lung
villi
gut
small intestine A intestine
capillary bed / capillaries / AW
skin qualified e.g. elephant’s ears
cerebral cortex / brain
kidney (tubule)
liver
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10
Q

Heart wall muscle is a special type of muscle called….

A

cardiac muscle

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11
Q

cardiac muscle can contract or relax without nervous stimulation and is thus described as….

A

myogenic

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12
Q

To ensure that the cardiac cycle stays in sequence

there is…

A

an in-built control mechanism

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13
Q

The wall of the right atrium contains a special

region of muscle called the…

A

sinoatrial node

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14
Q

The sinoatrial node sets up a wave of

electrical activity causing…

A

the atrial walls to contract almost simultaneously

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15
Q

There is a

band of fibres between the atria and ventricles which stop / prevent

A

the

wave of activity passing to the ventricle walls.

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16
Q

Transpiration definition

A

evaporation of water / water vapour lost (from plants);
diffusion,
into atmosphere / out of leaf / down a water potential gradient /
via stomata;

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17
Q

Explain why transpiration in plants cannot be avoided.

A

linked to gas exchange / AW; A refs to both oxygen and carbon
dioxide unqualified carbon dioxide for photosynthesis;
open stomata;
large area; can apply to leaf area or pore area
moist mesophyll to (relatively) dry air / water potential gradient / AW;
AVP; e.g. ref to some cuticular transpiration inevitable / AW
link open stomata to daytime when it is hottest / AW

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18
Q

Explain how a covering of leaf epidermal hairs helps xerophytes survive in their habitat.

A

hairs trap water vapour; R water unqualified / water particles A molecules
reduces water potential gradient / stops wind removing vapour /
more humid air around leaf; ecf for water
so less transpiration / AW;
AVP; e.g. ref reflective nature of hairs in context
ref to need of xerophytes to conserve water in dry habitat

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19
Q

Explain how water travels up the stem and into the leaf of a dicotyledonous plant.

A

1 in the xylem vessels; A tracheids
2 down a, water potential / Ψ, gradient;
R ‘along’ A refs to high to low water potential
3 most negative, at the leaf / in the atmosphere;
ora must refer to water potential
4 transpiration sets up a gradient / AW; any valid gradient
5 (places) water (in xylem) under, tension / suction / negative pressure /
pull / hydrostatic pressure gradient / AW;

6	cohesion;
7	description of cohesion;
8	ref to hydrogen bonding;
9	(continuous) water columns / AW;
10	mass flow;
11	root pressure, in context / described;
12	adhesion described / capillarity;
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20
Q

why squamous epithelium is described as a tissue

A

(made up of) one type of / (squamous) epithelium, cell(s);
A same R similar alone
(group of) cells performing the same function(s);

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21
Q

features of a gas exchange surface, such as the lining of the alveolus

A 
large surface area;
permeable;
thin / short, diffusion path;
moist;
good blood supply / close to blood;
well ventilated / in contact with respiratory medium;
22
Q

Describe how other molecules or ions cross a plasma (cell surface) membrane by active transport and facilitated diffusion.

A

active transport
1 against concentration gradient / described; A up
2 uses, energy / ATP;
facilitated diffusion
3 down concentration gradient / described; A with R along / across
4 no, energy / ATP, required; A passive
protein carrier (in either or undefined)
5 attaches on one side of the membrane;
6 protein, moves / turns / changes shape;
7 releases on other side of the membrane;

channel protein (facilitated diffusion only) 8	forms, pore / passage, through centre of the protein; 9	hydrophilic conditions / water lined; 10	phospholipid (bilayer) prevents, diffusion / passage / entry, of (some), molecules / ions;	R substances 11	polar / water soluble / not lipid soluble / too big / suitable named e.g.; 12	appropriate use of protein in both; 13	ref to specificity of protein to substance transported; 14	AVP; (for extra detail of transport mechanism)
23
Q

The term which refers to any organism that causes infectious disease.

A

pathogen;

24
Q

Diseases which cause a progressive deterioration of part of the body.

A

degenerative;

25
Q

The type of exercise that uses the heart and lungs to provide oxygen for respiration in muscles.

A

aerobic;

26
Q

The volume of air breathed in or out during a single breath.

A

tidal;

27
Q

A term used to describe a disease that spreads across continents.

A

pandemic;

28
Q

the carbohydrate that is transported in phloem

A

sucrose

29
Q

Outline how = companion (cell) and sieve (tube) element / sieve tube cell; are involved in the transport of carbohydrate in phloem.

A

1 sieve elements / Q, end to end or sieve plates perforated /
sieve pores, for ease of flow / AW;
2 companion cells / P, metabolically active / have many mitochondria /
produce ATP / release energy / AW; R make energy
3 (active) loading into, companion cell / P; A into, sieve elements / Q
4 ref to proton pump;
5 ref to co-transporter;
6 role of plasmodesmata (between P and Q); R pores
7 sieve element / Q, has few organelles / AW, for, ease of flow /
more sucrose / AW;
8 ref to, unloading mechanism / (hydrostatic) pressure gradient;
9 ref to one role for sieve plate e.g. electro-osmosis or stops
‘bulging’;

30
Q

Carbohydrate moves from regions of plants called sources to regions called sinks.
Explain how, at different times, the same plant root may be a source or a sink.

A

source when root converts, starch / insoluble carbohydrate, into sugars / AW;
sink when root either stores starch / (named) carbohydrate / assimilate
or uses carbohydrate for, respiration / growth / AW;
high hydrostatic pressure makes it a source and low hydrostatic pressure a sink;
when loading it is a source and when unloading a sink;

31
Q

Describe how the structure of an artery is related to its function.

A

1 ref to tunica, intima / interna, tunica media and tunica,
externa / adventitia;
2 thick wall, stops bursting / withstands pressure idea;
3 (relatively) narrow lumen to maintain pressure;
4 elastic tissue / AW, allowing stretching / AW;
5 elastic arteries near heart;
6 elastic recoil;
7 to even out surges of pressure / to maintain flow / AW;
A push idea

8 collagen provides (main) strength / AW;
9 (smooth) endothelium (of tunica intima) to reduce friction / AW;
A epithelium or lumen lining / AW R epidermis
10 tunica media / AW, has (smooth) muscle and elastic tissue;
collagen is neutral
11 to prevent bursting / withstands pressure / AW;
look for link to tunica media
12 (smooth) muscle maintaining pressure;
A ref vasoconstriction / ‘blood shunts’
R pumping action
13 AVP; e.g. idea that circular cross section allows max blood
volume for minimum wall contact / AW
award QWC mark if three of the following are used
tunica (qualified once)
lumen
elastic / elastin
collagen
recoil
smooth muscle
endothelium
vasoconstriction

32
Q

The blood also contains hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3–). Describe how these ions are formed in the blood.

A 
carbon dioxide (diffuses) into red blood cells; R blood only
carbonic anhydrase;
carbon dioxide reacts with water;
to form, carbonic acid / H2CO3 / HCO3–;
	R if linked with incorrect reaction
carbonic acid, dissociates / AW, to give HCO3–;
	accept from equations CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3–
33
Q

Suggest the consequences of a blockage at the coronary artery

A

oxygen / glucose, will not reach, (heart / cardiac) muscle; A less
reduced / no, respiration;
(possible) coronary / heart attack / myocardial infarction / (possible) death;

34
Q

Definition: closed system

A

blood enclosed in vessels

35
Q

why the mammalian system is called a complete double circulation whilst that of the frog is called a partial double circulation.

A

ventricles not separated / one ventricle / partial or no septum /
three chambers / left and right sides not separated; ora for mammal
single vessel from heart; ora for mammal A aorta
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood not (fully) separated;
ora for mammal
blood passes twice through heart for complete circulation /
systemic and pulmonary systems / to lungs and body;

36
Q

why the system shown for the frog may be less effective at supplying the body tissues with oxygen

A

blood will not be fully oxygenated / Hb less fully saturated /
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood mixed / AW;
still carrying carbon dioxide;
lower pressure or less, force / push / AW;

37
Q

one way in which the dissociation curve for lugworm haemoglobin differs from that for human haemoglobin

A

lugworm haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen ;
low oxygen in, lugworm habitat / water / ora ;
lugworm haemoglobin, stores oxygen / only releases oxygen when pp
O2 very low ;
two haemoglobins have different, structures / amino acid sequences ;

38
Q

Describe the similarities and differences between the adaptations for gas exchange and transport of oxygen in mammals and lugworms.

A

D1 ref to lugworm gills and mammal, alveoli / lungs ;
D2 ref to internal and external, exchange surfaces ;
D3 less oxygen in, water / sand ; A ora
D4 lugworm haemoglobin adapted to, water / sand/ low O2
environment ; A ora
D5 lugworm has no red blood cells / ora ;
D6 detail of mammalian red blood cells ;
D7 lung ventilation tidal / lugworm, throughflow / unidirectional / AW ;
D8 AVP ; e.g. ref. water loss from lungs
similarities (max 5)
S1 both (gas exchange surfaces have) large surface area ;
S2 both, thin / have short diffusion distance ;
S3 both well-vascularised ;
S4 both moist ;
S5 ref to diffusion of, oxygen / carbon dioxide / gases ;
S6 (blood carries) oxygen to tissues ;
S7 haemoglobin transports oxygen ;
S8 both move medium over gas exchange surface ;

39
Q

one way in which root hairs are adapted to increase uptake

A

long;
thin cell wall;
lack of, waterproof layer / cuticle;
large surface area; NOT if cilia / villi / microvilli / tails / etc
present in large numbers;
(membrane) proteins / carriers / channels / aquaporins;
many mitochondria;

40
Q

method used by root hairs to take up nitrate ions

A

active transport / diffusion / facilitated diffusion / described;
A pinocytosis

41
Q

Outline the process by which water enters the cells of the root from the soil

A

lower water potential inside / ora;
movement, down water potential gradient / from high Ψ to low Ψ;
through, channel proteins / partially permeable membrane /
aquaporins / AW;
walls freely permeable;
osmosis;

42
Q

Outline what happens to chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle.

A

prophase
1 C;
2 chromosomes / chromatids, condense / coil / shorten and thicken;
3 become visible;
4 consist of two chromatids;
5 joined by a centromere; A kinetochore NOT centrosome

metaphase 6	A; 7	chromosomes align at, equator / metaphase plate; 8	attached to spindle by centromeres;
	anaphase
9	B;
10	centromere splits;
11	chromatids separate;
12	move to opposite poles;
13	by, contraction / shortening, of spindle;
	telophase
14	E;
15	chromosomes uncoil;
interphase 16	D; A for a description of early prophase 17	DNA replication; 18	transcription / formation of mRNA; 19	AVP; these must relate to behaviour of chromosomes 20	AVP; e.g.	spindle made of microtubules
chromatin becomes chromosomes (in prophase)
ora in interphase
centromere leads chromatid to pole
gene switching during interphase	9 max

QWC – clear well organised using specialist terms;	1
award the QWC mark if three of the following are used in correct context, but Q = 0 if names or names of stages of mitosis are used inappropriately
chromatin	equator / metaphase plate chromatid	DNA replication centromere	transcription spindle
43
Q

Describe how the tissues in the gaseous exchange system contribute to the functioning of the lungs.

A 
cartilage
1	in, trachea / bronchi;
2	holds airway open / prevents collapse;
3	prevents bursting (of trachea / bronchi as air pressure changes);
4	low resistance to air movement;
ciliated epithelium / cilia 5	move mucus; 6	ref to how movement brought about; e.g. metachronal rhythm / wave / sweep / waft

goblet cells 7	secrete mucus; 8	trap, bacteria / dust / pollen / particles; 9	remove particles from lungs;

blood vessels 10	supply, oxygen / nutrients (to tissues of lung); 11	surround alveoli / good blood supply to alveoli; 12	deliver carbon dioxide / pick up oxygen; 13	ref to wall of capillary being thin; 14	ease of / rapid, gaseous exchange or short diffusion pathway;

smooth muscle 15	adjust size of airways (in, exercise / asthma);
connective tissue / elastin / elastic tissue 16	stretch (inhalation); 17	prevents alveoli bursting; 18	recoil; R contract 19	helps exhalation / forces air out (of lungs);

squamous epithelium / described 20	alveolus wall thin; 21	ease of / rapid, gaseous exchange or short diffusion pathway; 22	AVP; e.g. ref to large surface area of numerous alveoli 23	AVP; ref to macrophages removing pathogens
44
Q

Features of xylem and how they help with function

A

lack of contents / no cytoplasm / hollow / lumen / continuous /
less resistance to flow / more space linked to idea of lack of contents
thickening / rings / spirals / lignin (in the wall); treat cellulose as neutral
prevents collapse / gives support / adhesion of water;
pits / AW; A pores / holes (in side walls)
allow lateral movement / AW;

45
Q

Example in plants of a source

A

leaf / storage organ / named storage organ

46
Q

Example in plants of a sink

A

root / tuber / storage organ / (young) growing region / leaf

qualified / flower / bud / fruit / seed;

47
Q

explain how mass flow of materials between the source and the sink would be brought about

A 
water will enter source;
by osmosis;
down / AW, a water potential gradient;
increase in (hydrostatic) pressure;
as source / sink cannot expand / AW;
force / AW, solution along (tube to sink);
AVP; e.g. explanation of mass flow
48
Q

piece of evidence for the involvement of an active process in sugar transport from sources to sinks in plants

A

ATP involved / respiration involved / many mitochondria in companion
cells / reduced by metabolic inhibitors / oxygen dependent / temperature
dependent / loading against a concentration gradient

49
Q

Describe an active mechanism which could possibly be involved in the transport of sugars from sources to sinks.

A 
loading, into companion cell / from transfer cell / into sieve tube /
into phloem – implied;
H ions / protons, pumped out of, companion cell / sieve tube / phloem;
diffuse back in with sucrose;
protein carrier / co-transporter;
possible active unloading by reverse mechanism;
	AVP to cover alternative mechanisms;;;
e.g.	electro-osmotic theory
	K+ pump
	via companion cell
	electrochemical gradient
	sieve pores provide a capillary bed
50
Q

Definition: double circulatory system

A

(blood flows) twice through the heart / AW;
for one circuit / cycle (of the whole body) / AW; A for one heart beat
ref pulmonary and systemic systems / to lungs and to (rest of) body;

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