ALL revision powerpoint Flashcards
Which terminology is used for quan studies?
Reliability or dependability
Quan: Reliability
Qual: dependability
Which terminology is used for quan studies?
Credibility or internal validity
Defo: Good data collection/ research quality
Quan: Internal validity
Qual: Credibility
Which terminology is used for quan studies?
Transferability or external validity/ generalisablity
defo: findings can be applied to other situations
Quan: external validity/ generalisablity
Qual: Transferability
What does dissemination of research mean?
Spreading/ sharing research
Outline the steps for PARIHS (Promoting Action Research Implementation in Health Services
Evidence (research, patient and clinical experience)
Context (culture. leadership, values, stakeholders)
Facilitation (skills & attributes, holistic purpose and enabling role)
Improved Practice
rank these types of data in terms of the hierarchy of evidence
Clinical trials
case reports/ series
Systematic reviews
Observational studies
anecdotal findings/ ideas and opinions
Systematic reviews
Clinical trials
Observational studies
case reports/ series
anecdotal findings/ ideas and opinions
PICOT stands for
Population
Intervention
Comparison
Outcomes of Interest
Timeframe
SPIDER stands for
Sample
Phenomenon of Interest
Design
Evaluation
Research type
Is PICOT used for quan, qual and/or mixed methods?
QUAN
Is SPIDER used for quan, qual and/or mixed methods
Qual and mixed methods
Differences between quan and qual research
Philosophical origin/ ontology
Quan: Positivism (facts and scientific)
Qual: Interpretivism (opinions)
Differences between quan and qual research
Basis of knowing - why are we doing the research
Quan: cause-effect relationship
Qual: understanding
Differences between quan and qual research
Theoretical focus
Quan: test hypothesis (deductive)
Qual: generate theories and understanding (inductive)
Differences between quan and qual research
Researcher involvement
Quan: Objective (no bias/ opinion)
Qual: Subjective (opinions/ bias)
Differences between quan and qual research
Data collection
Quan: survey, experiment, method, clinical trail, closed questionnaires
Qual: interviews, focus groups, observation
Differences between quan and qual research
Type of data
Quan: no’s
Qual: words
Differences between quan and qual research
Data analysis
Quan: stats
Qual: text-based analysis
Differences between quan and qual research
Findings
Quan: generalizable
Qual: transferable
Generalizable and transferable mean the same thing- (findings/results can be used/applied to other situations)
Methodologies in Qual
Ethnography
Uses interviews or observation to look at culture
Methodologies in Qual
Phenomenological
Interviews people with a lived experience/ human experience eg. what is it like living with type 1 diabetes
Different methodologies in Qual
Generic Qualitative
Follows a method but does not identify a methodology
Methodologies in Qual
Narrative
Stories from individuals or documents to learn about an individuals experience or sequence
Methodologies in Qual
Grounded theory
Interviews are used to Understand why a social interaction/ lived experience happens to generate a theory
- why do student nurses drop out
Empiral - lots of student nurses drop out
What is a methodology?
the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic.
In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability.
Methodologies in Qual
Case study
Interviews/ documents/ reports or observations are used to
explore a detailed investigation of the development of a single or multiple events/ individuals
Methodologies in Quan
RCT
Random
Scientific experiment, blinding (placebo), large sample size
Methodologies in Quan
Quasi- experiment
Not random. the researcher can manipulate the design to suit
Class of 30 to split into 2 teams
RCT: pick 15 names out of a hat to make 1 team
QUASI: splitting a class directly down the middle so 15 on each side
Methodologies in Quan
Case control
case: with disease
Control: no disease
Methodologies in Quan
Cohort study
a group of people with defining characteristics that start something at the same time and are studied over a long period of time .eg. first year nursing students studied over 3 years of their degree
Methodologies in Quan
Fixed cohort study
cohort study that starts and finishes at the same time
cohort study- A long term study looking at a similar group of people
Mixed method research types
ExplANatory sequential
quAN first then qual
Mixed method research types
Exploratory sequential
Qual then Quan
Mixed method research types
Parallel
Quan and Qual side by side
Mixed method research types
Multiphase
Quan and qual mixed together
Types of data
Categorical
Made up of categories eg. dog breeds
Types of data
Binary
two distinct types of things eg. male and female
Types of data
Nominal
named data that can’t be ranked eg. ethnicity
Types of data
Ordinal
data that can be ranked eg.
economy and business class
Happy, okay, sad
pain score
Types of data
Continuous
?
Types of data
Ratio
?
Autonomy
The right for an individual to make his or her own choice
Beneficence
The principle of acting with the best interest of the other in mind
Non-maleficence
avoid doing harm
Justice
A concept that emphasizes fairness and equality among individuals
what are ethics?
Ways of understanding and examining moral life, or of the right and wrong human conduct
how are ethics considered in research?
ethical section
Researcher Bias
Has the researcher influenced the outcome of the researcher in anyway?
Design Bias-
Occurs in the planning phase – subjective criteria used to define participant groups (differences may then be arbitrary rather than statistically significant)
Recall bias
bias that occurs when individuals in a study have to rely on their memory in order to answer certain questions.
Selection bias
sample selection does not accurately reflect the target population
Confirmation bias
This can occur when the data from the study, is interpreted by the researchers, and deemed to suggest what they want it to, rather than what it actually represents. This can be both consciously or unconsciously.
Measurement Bias
a form of bias where those who are collecting data are aware of which groups participants are allocated to?
Response bias
bias that occurs when individuals respond to a question in a study in a certain way because they think the answer they are giving is what the researcher wants to hear.
Observational bias
Observational bias occurs when participants are observed as part of a study and this alters their behavior or responses to questions
Sampling bias
bias that occurs when the selection of a sample for a study may exclude certain groups of people in a systematic manner. Example: an online survey will exclude all those people who do not have access to the internet.
Publishing bias-
Sometimes studies that have negative findings, such as trials that have no real significant findings are less likely to be published in journals as they are thought to not carry any significant interest.
Types of Qualitative sampling methods
purposive
picking people with a long term condition vs diagnosed yesterday
Types of Qualitative sampling methods
theoretical
once sampling has started a theory or common theme develops so then sampling to research this new developed theory
Types of Qualitative sampling methods
snowball
connections lead to other connections
Types of Qualitative sampling methods
convenience
happen to be in the right place at the right time
Qual sampling- data saturation
same opinion/theory keeps reoccurring
Types of probability quan sampling methods
simple random sampling
randomly select from sampling frame eg. RCT
Types of probability quan sampling methods
systematic sampling
select every nth element from sampling frame
Types of probability quan sampling methods
stratified sampling
create subgroups then randomly select from group - age, gender…
Types of probability quan sampling methods
cluster
random cluster then random selection within the cluster
Types of non- probability quan sampling
convenience (accidental)
subject happens to be in the right place a the right time to be recruited eg. student nurse in a seminar to ask about sharp injuries
Types of non-probability quan sampling
quota sampling
similar to convenience but non random selection to pick out underrepresented groups eg. male student nurses in a seminar group
Common Quan Stats
P-Value
Measures probability that observed difference is chance. The lower the score, the less likely due to chance, and so the more likely it is significant (significant = p-value <0.05)
Common Quan Stats
T-Test
An inferential statistic, measuring difference between the mean of 2 sets of data. The bigger the score, the more likely the test is repeatable.
Common Quan Stats
Pearson’s correlation
An interval statistic – measures a linear relationship between 2 variables, where a change in one variable causes a proportional change in the other (e.g. age and BP)
Common Quan Stats
Spearman’s correlation
An ordinal or monotonic statistic – the variables change together, but not necessarily at the same rate (e.g. use of internet and IQ)
Common Quan Stats
Spearman’s correlation
An ordinal or monotonic statistic – the variables change together, but not necessarily at the same rate (e.g. use of internet and IQ)
Common Quan Stats
Chi2
A categorical statistic - looking for independence of data (one variable not related to the other) measures the difference between the observed and expected outcomes of the variables
Common Quan Stats
Cohen’s Kappa coefficient
Measures inter-rater reliability, e.g. performing GCS – assessing if agreement is by chance
Common Quan Stats
Confidence Interval
The confidence you have that the result will lie between a predetermined range of values
Sample and sample Error
There will always be sampling error because the sample will not 100% represent the whole population
Variation & sample size impact confidence interval
Larger variation and small sample size = large confidence interval
Common stats
What p-value makes something statistically significant
= or less than 0.05
0.05 means 5% by chance
reject null hypothesis (no effect)
accept alternative hypothesis (the independent variable caused an effect)
Common Quan Stats
Intention to Treat
Including results from participants who do not complete the trial (e.g. died or withdrew) – maintain the original randomised groups of participants
Common Quan Stats
Is a higher confidence interval better?
A large confidence interval suggests that the sample does not provide a precise representation of the population mean, whereas a narrow confidence interval demonstrates a greater degree of precision.
Common Quan Stats
Descriptive statistics -
mean, median, mode, standard deviation – terms used to describe numbers and patterns
Common Quan Stats
Inferential statistics
used to determine the statistical significance of any observed differences between groups
Common Quan Stats
Interval/ discrete statistics
Differences between measurements but no true zero (can be negative) eg. temperature
Common Quan Stats
Ratio/continuous statistics
Differences between measurements and a true zero (have traveled 0km and not at all) eg. distance traveled, age, weight
Quan- internal validity
validity = refers to accuracy of a measure – results represent what they are suppose to measure
study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias
Quan- external validity
validity = refers to accuracy of a measure – results represent what they are suppose to measure
study findings can be generalized (applied) to other contexts.
eg. a research design, which involves sending out survey questionnaires to students picked at random, displays more external validity than one where the questionnaires are given to friends. This is randomization to improve external validity.
quan- reliability
results can be reproduced under the same conditions = credible and trustworthy results
