ALL CONTENT Flashcards
1
Q
Components of the skeletal system
A
- Bones
- Cartilage
- Ligaments
2
Q
Avascular
A
Lacks blood vessels
3
Q
What structures are avascular
A
ligaments, cartilage, tendons
4
Q
Articular/hyaline cartilage
A
Support with some flexibility
(e.g. on bone ends in joints)
5
Q
Types of cartilage:
A
Articular/hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
6
Q
Elastic cartilage
A
Firm but elastic support
Allows some stretch and recoil
6
Q
Fibrocartilage
A
Resists compression + absorbs pressure
(e.g. intervertebral discs)
7
Q
Functions of the Skeletal system
A
Structural support for soft tissues
Mineral homeostasis
Blood cell production
Triglyceride storage
8
Q
Vertebrae is made up of
A
- 7 cervical
- 12 thoracic
- 5 lumbar
- 1 fused sacral
- 1 fused coccyx
9
Q
Depressions & openings (bone marking)
A
Allow passageway for blood vessels & nerves
ligaments & tendons
10
Q
Property of crystallised mineral salts
A
Hardness & rigidity of bone
Resists compression forces
11
Q
Processes (bone markings)
A
Projections or bone growth
Form part of joints
Provide attachment points for ligaments and tendons
12
Q
Bone composition
A
13
Q
Property of collagen fibres
A
Flexibility
14
Q
Bone classification
A
- By shape
- By structure
Compact versus spongy bone
Organic versus inorganic components
15
Q
Flat bone purpose
A
Protect internal organs
Attachment site for muscles
16
Q
Irregular bone purpose
A
Attatchment site: ligaments
16
Q
Short bone purpose
A
provide stability, support and limited motion
17
Q
Long bone purpose
A
levers
18
Q
Sesamoid bone purpose
A
protect tendons by helping overcome compression forces
19
Q
Organic bones
A
Flexibility + tensile strength to bone
(Ability to resist tearing, stretching and some twisting forces)
- Primarily collagen fibres
20
Q
Inorganic bone
A
Gives hardness, rigidity
Ability to resist compression forces
Supports body tissues
- Minerals: calcium, ions, phosphates and carbonate
21
Q
Diaphysis
A
bone shaft of compact bone
22
Q
Epiphysis
A
Ends of bone; spongy bone below layer of compact bone
22
Red marrow
in spongy bone (blood cell production)
23
Metaphysis
Joins diaphysis and epiphysis; spongy bone below layer of compact bone
24
Yellow marrow
in medullary cavity (lipid storage)
25
Articular cartilage (long bone anatomy)
protects bone ends
25
Periosteum
outside of bone
* Two layers: fibrous outer & cellular inner
26
Endosteum
In medullary cavity
Covers spongy bone
* Contains bone cells
26
Osteoblasts
build bone
27
Osteoclasts
breakdown bone
27
Osteogenic
produce osteoblasts
27
Osteocytes
Maintain matrix and mineral content
28
Compact bone
Arrangment of tissue: osteons
Location: diaphysis and outside of epiphysis
Properties: withstand compression
29
Spongy bone
Arrangment of tissue: trabecular
Location: in epiphysis
Properties: resist forces
30
Fibrous joints
No joint cavity
Bones held together by dense, irregular CT
31
Cartilaginous joints
no joint cavity
bones connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
31
Stenosis (fibrous joint)
complete fusion of two bones into one
32
Suture (fibrous joint)
Bones held very tightly together
By layer of dense, irregular CT
Only found in the skull
33
Gomphosis
a ligament holding a tooth in jaw socket
34
Synarthrosis
an immovable joint
(suture and stenosis, synchondrosis)
34
Symphysis (cartilaginous)
has a pad of fibrocartilage between the bones
34
Synchondrosis (cartilaginous)
has hyaline cartilage
35
Amphiarthrosis
a slightly moveable joint
(interosseous membranes, syndesmosis and symphysis)
36
Diarthrosis
freely moveable joint
36
Functions of muscular tissue
Producing body movements
Stabilising body positions
Support soft tissues
37
Excitability
tissue responds to a stimulus
38
Contractility
tissue can shorten & generate force
39
Elasticity
tissue can return to original length
39
Extensibility
tissue can be stretched
40
Muscule types control (involuntary vs voluntary)
Smooth: involuntary
Cardiac: involuntary
Skeletal: voluntary
41
Muscle types influenced by
Smooth: hormones, stretching, ANS
Cardiac: hormones, ANS
Skeletal: hormones
42
Muscle types are they pacemaker
Smooth: yes
Cardiac: yes
Skeletal: no
43
Muscle types uninucleated vs multinucleated
Smooth: uni
Cardiac: uni
Skeletal: multi
44
Muscle types divide and generate
Smooth: can divide and generate
Cardiac: cant do both
Skeletal: cant divide can repair
45
Muscle types straited vs non striated
Smooth: non
Cardiac: striated
Skeletal: striated
46
Hypertrophy
* Increase use
* Increase tissue size (because of increase in SIZE of cells)
* E.g. skeletal muscle
47
Hyperplasia
* Increase of tissue size (because of increase in cell NUMBER)
* E.g. smooth muscle (can also use hypertrophy)
48
Atrophy
* Decrease use
* Decrease in tissue size (because of decrease in SIZE of cells)
* E.g. skeletal muscle
49
Sarcolemma
cell membrane
50
Transverse tubules
filled with extracellular fluid
action potential can run in
50
Sarcoplasm
surrounds structures
50
Skeletal muscle organisation biggest to smallest
Muscle
Fascicle
Fibre
Myofibril
Myofilament
51
Tropomyosin
covers sites where actin could bind to myosin
51
Troponin
holds tropomyosin in place
52
Three functions of blood
Transportation
Regulation
Protection
52
Sarcomere
stores and retrieves calcium ions
53
How/what does blood transport
* Oxygen from the lungs to cells
* Carbon dioxide from cells to the lungs for exhalation
* Nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to cells
54
Two ways blood regulates
Maintain homeostasis of all body fluids
Adjust body temperature via a negative feedback loop
55
Blood protection protects from
White blood cells protect against
* External threats
* Internal threats
56
Characteristics of blood
* pH: 7.35 - 7.45
* Temperature: 38ºC
* Viscosity: about 5x thicker than water
* Colour: varies with oxygen content. Bright red (oxygenated), dark red (deoxygenated)
* Volume: about 8% of adult body weight.
57
What are the three major groups of plasma proteins
Albumin
Globulins
Fibrinogen
58
Albumin (plasma protein)
* Made by the liver
* Transport vehicle for fatty acids, calcium and steroid hormones
* Contributes to osmotic pressure of blood
59
Globulins (plasma protein)
* Immunoglobulins (antibodies): made by plasma cells, bind to specific antigens and mark them for destruction by specialised white blood cells
* Alpha and beta globulins: made by the liver, transport iron, lipids, and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K to the cells; contribute to osmotic pressure.
60
Fibrinogen (plasma protein)
* Made by the liver
* Form clots
* Produce long, insoluble strands of fibrin.
61
What do RBC have and dont have
No nucleus
No mitochondria
No endoplasmic reticulum
Have structural proteins
Have biconcave disks
62
Vascular spasm four steps
Damage to the blood vessel
Triggers contraction of the smooth muscle in the vessel wall.
Narrows vessel lumen at the site of injury
Results in a decrease in blood flow to the area
62
Haemostasis steps
* Vascular spasm: the formation of a platelet plug
* Coagulation (blood clotting)
63
Haemostasis
Process where the body seals a ruptured blood vessel and prevents further loss of blood.
64
Coagulation
Blood clotting:
Cascade of enzymatic reactions -> fibrinogen -> fibrin
Fibrin mesh grows -> platelets and blood cells are trapped -> forms a clot that seals off the damaged vessel.
64
Platelet plug formation
Prevent further loss of blood from a damaged vessel
65
Extrinsic pathway (coagulation)
* Triggered when clotting factors outside the blood vessel leak into blood
* Fewer steps
* Begins within seconds
* Damaged cells release tissue factor
* Activates factor X which combines with factor V in the presence of calcium to form prothrombinase
66
Intrinsic pathway (coagulation)
* Triggered when clotting factors come into contact with substances inside the blood vessel
* More steps
* Takes minutes to begin
* Begins with circulating proenzymes
* Platelets releases factors
* Activates Factor X which combines with factor V in the presence of calcium to form prothrombinase
66
Common pathway (coagulation)
* Where extrinsic and intrinsic pathways converge
* Prothrombinase (and calcium) converts prothrombin -> thrombin
* Thrombin (and calcium) converts
fibriogen -> fibrin
* Fibrin forms the threads of the clot
67
Clot retraction results in
* Decreases the size of the damaged area
* Decreases the residual bleeding and stabilises the injury
* Permits healing
68
Fibrinolysis
Clog degrades:
* Thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) activate plasminogen
* Plasminogen produces plasmin
* Plasmin digests fibrin strands.
69
Pericardium (layer of heart)
Outer lining of the heart
* Protects and confines the heart in the mediastinum
* Made of: superficial fibrous pericardium, and deeper serous pericardium (outer parietal layer + inner visceral layer)
* Pericardial cavity between these two layers contains serous fluid (pericardial fluid)
* Fluid: lubricates the layers of the serous pericardium as the heart moves
70
Myocardium (layer of heart)
Composed of cardiac muscle tissue
Responsible for the pumping action of the heart.
71
Endocardium (layer of heart)
Layer of endothelium with overlying thin layer of connective tissue.
* Lines chambers of the heart
* Covers the values of the heart
* Smooth to reduce friction as the blood passes through the heart.
72
Pulmonary pump
send blood to the lungs
73
Systemic pump
delivers blood to/from the body
74
Inferior vena cava
Carries oxygenated blood from lower body to right atrium
75
Superior vena cava
Carries deoxygenated blood from upper body to right atrium
76
Systole
contraction
77
Direction of blood flow
High pressure -> low
78
Blood pressure equation
MAP = CO x TPR
79
Cardiac output equation
Cardiac output (mL/min)= SV x HR
80
Regulation of TPR through which two processes
Vasodilation
Vasoconstriction
81
Vasoconstriction
activation of sympathetic system
* Smooth muscle in blood vessel walls contract = increase TPR
82
Vasodilation
decreased activation of sympathetic system
* Smooth muscle in blood vessel walls relax = decrease resistance (TPR)
83
Cardiac reserve
difference between resting and maximal CO
84
What is resting HR maintained by
Cardioinhibitory centre
Occurs via parasympathetic vagus nerve
85
Sinoatrial node
Small mass of specialized tissue located in the atria
Generates an electrical stimulus regularly
86
Tachycardia
Abnormally fast HR >100
87
Autoregulation
(cardiovasular regulation)
local control at the blood vessel site causing immediate localised homeostatic adjustments
87
Bradycardia
HR < 60
88
Hypoxia
decreased partial pressure of O2
89
Hypercapnia
increased partial pressure of CO2
buildup of CO2 in bloodstream
* Blood PCO2 > 45 mmHg
* Increased CO2 + H2O -> Increased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - + Increased H+
90
Acidosis
decreased pH
(increased concentration of H+)
91
Hyperkalaemia
increased concentration of K+ extracellularly
92
Local factors that cause vasodilation
(autoregulation)
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Acidosis
* Hyperkalaemia
* Increased adenosine concentration
* Increased temperature
* Increased osmolarity
93
Cardiovascular regulation occurs due to
Autoregulation
Neural mechanisms
Endocrine mechanisms
94
Neural mechanisms
respond quickly to changes
95
Endocrine mechanisms
direct long-term changes
1) Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
2) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
3) Erythropoietin (EPO)
96
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
↑ blood pressure caused by
* powerful vasoconstriction
* ↑ blood volume
96
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
* ↑ blood pressure by ↑ blood volume
* Can cause vasoconstriction
97
Erythropoietin (EPO)
* Released at kidneys
* Responds to low blood pressure, low O2 content in blood
* Stimulates RBC production→ ↑ blood pressure
98
Baroreceptor
located in corroded sinus and aortic arch
* Respond to the degree of stretch in the arterial walls
* Baroreceptors send action potential to medulla
* Medulla regulates BP
99
Chemoreceptors
Receptors sensing changes in the composition of arterial blood
100
Two types of chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors
100
Lower respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
101
Central chemoreceptors
Located in the medulla oblongata
* Highly sensitive to hypercapnia and acidosis
101
Peripheral chemoreceptors
PO
Located in carotid and aortic bodies
* Highly sensitive to hypoxia (decreased O2)
* Moderately sensitive to hypercapnia and acidosis
101
Upper respiratory tract
nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and pharynx
102
Respiratory zone
* Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
* Where gas exchange takes place
103
Conducting zone
* Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
* No gas exchange
104
Conchae
increase SA
produce a turbulent airflow to delay it for warming, humidifying and cleaning the air to protect the lungs
105
Vestibule
is continuous with the skin outside
lined with keratinised stratified squamous epithelium to withstand mechanical insults
106
Roof of the nasal cavity
is lined with sensory cells of the olfactory mucosa
helps with smell sensation
107
Respiratory epithelium
lines posterior part of nasal cavity
108
Goblet cells
secrete mucus, which can trap dust, debris and pathogens
109
Laryngopharynx
Extending from the epiglottis to the oesophagus.
* It opens into the larynx anteriorly and oesophagus posteriorly.
* The common path for food and air
* The stratified squamous epithelium changes to non-keratinised in this region
109
Cilia
beat in unison towards the pharynx to remove the mucus with damaging foreign particles
110
Paranasal sinuses
Hollow cavities in the facial bones, continuous with nasal cavity
111
Nasopharynx
Lined with respiratory epithelium
* Aids warming, humidifying, and filtering air
111
Oropharynx
Lies posterior to the oral cavity, & is common path for food and air.
* Lined with non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.
112
Thyroid cartilage
Enlarges into Adam’s apple after puberty in males.
* Made of smooth Hyaline cartilage.
113
Epiglottis
It covers the opening of the larynx (glottis) during swallowing, so that food and drinks cannot enter the airways.
* Leaf-like elastic cartilage.
114
Cricoid cartilage
hyaline cartilage
* Found below the thyroid cartilage and the two are linked by a membrane.
* Cricothyroidotomy: this membrane is cut open during emergency if airways are obstructed.
115
Layers of trachea
* Submucosa
* Adventitia
* Mucosa (respiratory epithelium and lamina propria)
* Hyaline cartilage
* Circumferential smooth muscle
115
Type I alveolar cells/pneumocytes
Lines 90% of alveoli
Thin simple squamous epithelia
Facilitate easy diffusion of gases
115
Vocal cords (folds)
Membranous tissue arising from the sides of the larynx and forming a slit-like opening called glottis.
* The movement of air through the glottis vibrates the vocal cords and produce sound/speech.
116
Type II alveolar cells/pneumocytes
lines 5-10% of alveoli
* Simple cuboidal tissue
When breathing out, secrete surfactant to
* Reduce surface tension
* Prevent collapse of the alveoli
117
Boyles law
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
When intra-alveolar volume ↑ → Pressure ↓
117
Effect of pH on oxygen affinity and dissociation
Tissues have higher CO2 = higher acidity
* Decreased pH: lower O2 binding affinity: binds to less CO2
* Increased pH: higher O2 binding affinity: binds to more CO2
O2 dissociates when blood reaches tissues
118
Effect of temperature on haemoglobin affinity and dissociation
* Increased temperature: lower O2 binding affinity
* Decreased temperature: higher O2 binding affinity
Effect significant in active tissues generating large amounts of heat
119
Hypercapnia
Buildup of CO2 in bloodstream
* Blood PCO2 > 45 mmHg
* Increased CO2 + H2O -> Increased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - + Increased H+
120
Main causes of hypercapnia
* Hypoventilation: inadequate O2 delivery and CO2 removal
121
Consequences of hypercapnia
Respiratory acidosis
* ↓ CNS activity
* Lethargy, coma and death
122
Hypocapnia
Lack of CO2 in bloodstream
Blood PCO2 < 40 mm Hg
* No breathing until level reaches PCO2 ≥ 40 mm Hg
* Decreased CO2 + H2O -> Decreased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - Decreased H+
123
Tidal volume (TV)
Amount of air inspired + expired during a normal breath
124
Consequence of Hypocapnia
alkalosis
* ↑ CNS activity
* ‘Pins and needles’, dizziness
125
Cause of Hypocapnia
hyperventilation (increased CO2 removal)
126
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Additional amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation
127
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Additional amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.
128
Residual volume (RV)
Amount of air left after ERV is exhaled
128
Inspiratory capacity (IC)
Amount of air that can be inhaled after the end of a normal expiration.
IC = TV + IRV
128
Vital capacity (VC)
Measures the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle.
VC = ERV + TV + IRV
129
Total lung capacity (TLC)
Measurement of the total amount of air that the lung can hold
TLC: RV + ERV + TV + IRV
129
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
Measures the amount of additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.
FRC = RV+ERV.
130
Forced expiratory volume (FEV)
measures how much air can be forced out of the lung over a specific period
130
FEV1/FVC ratio is high
the lungs are not compliant
* Lungs are stiff can't bend properly
* Patients exhale most of the lung volume very quickly
131
FEV1/FVC ratio is low
Resistance in the lung (characteristic of asthma)
* Long time to reach the maximal exhalation volume.
* Exhale lung volume very slowly
132
Respiratory minute volume (RMV)
Total amount of air moving into the respiratory passages each minute
133
Anatomic dead space
Air in the conducting zone is not available for gas exchange
133
Alveolar ventilation equation
(TV − Anatomic dead space) × BR
134
Haemoglobin
4 globlin proteins + 1 haem
Haem attatches to O2
Haem + 4 O2 (reversible)
Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) <-> Deoxyhaemoglobin (HHb)
135
Oxygen saturation
Saturation: all four haems are attached to O2
Haem binds to 1st O2 -> haemoglobin changes shape -> further uptake of O2 -> increased affinity
136
Transporting CO2 as ...
70% carried as bicarbonate ion in plasma
23% bound to haemoglobin
7% dissolved in plasma
137
Compensation for acidosis/alkalosis occurs by
* Chemical buffers in seconds
* Respiratory changes in minutes
138
Capacities
measurements of 2+ volumes
139
Forced vital capacity (FVC)
measures total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
140
FEV1/FVC ratio is high
Lungs are not compliant
* Lungs are stiff can't bend properly (characteristic of lung fibrosis)
* Exhale lung volume very quickly
141
FEV1/FVC ratio is low
There is resistance in the lung (characteristic of asthma)
* Long time to reach the maximal exhalation volume.
* Exhale lung volume very slowly
142
Regulation of SV through what
Intrinsic control
Extrinsic control
143
Intrinsic control (regulation of SV)
If ventricular wall stretched before contraction -> contractile force increases
If End Diastolic Volume increases -> SV increases -> CO increases
Ventricle chamber stretches & puts pressure on ventricular wall
144
Extrinsic control (regulation of SV)
Stimulation of sympathetic activity
* Noradrenaline (& adrenaline injection) acting on β1 adrenergic receptors.
* Effect: increased contractile force
145
Vasomotor centre
Cluster of sympathetic neurons in medulla that oversee changes in blood vessel diameter
146
Blood through the heart (right)
Superior/inferior vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
147
Blood through the heart (left)
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta
Body
148
SA node
pacemaker of the heart
Autorythmic
Doesn't need stimulation
In right atrium
149
Autorythmic
sets its own rythm
150
Depolarisation
Makes heart contract
151
Repolarisation
152
Bundle branches
Send messages to inner walls of heart
153
Purkinje fibres
Allow messages to travel on the outer walls of the heart
154
Steps of ECG conduction
1) Message at SA node
2) Message is sent to the right and left atrium: makes atrium contract
3) Message spreads down to AV node
4) Message is sent to AV bundle, bundle branches, purkinje fibres
5) Messages travel on inner walls of heart via bundle branches
6) Messages travel on outer walls of heart via Purkinje fibres
7) Message causes ventricles to contract
155
P wave
depolarisation of atria (contraction of atria: step 2)
156
QRS wave
depolarisation of ventricles (contraction of ventricle: step 7)
Repolarisation of atria: hidden
157
T wave
repolarisation of the ventricles (relaxation of ventricles)
158
Cardiac cycle
Atrial systole:
1) Atrial contraction: depolarisaton (blood from atrium -> ventricles)
Atrial diastole:
2) Ventricles contract: depolarisation (ventricular systole)
3) Increased ventricular pressure
4) Ventricle ejection (blood ejected to arteries)
5) Isovolumetric relaxation: repolarisation (ventricle diastole)
6) Ventricular filling
7) Blood comes from lungs and body to fill atria (restart)
159
are arteries and veins efferent and afferent
Arteries (efferent vessels)
Veins (afferent vessels)
160
Atriole
small artery
161
Venule
small vein
162
Tunica intima (artery)
Internal elastic membrane present
Rippled because of constriction
163
The walls of arteries and veins contain what three layers
Tunica intima (innermost layer)
Tunica media (middle layer)
Tunica externa (tunica adventitia) outermost layer
164
Tunica media (artery)
External elastic membrane present (in larger vessel)
Thick: smooth muscle + elastic fibre
165
Tunica intima (vein)
No internal elastic membrane present
Smooth
166
Tunica media (vein)
No external elastic membrane present
Thin: smooth muscle + collagen fibre
167
Tunica externa (artery)
Collagen + elastic fibers
Thinner layer (apart from thicker artey)
168
Tunica externa (vein)
Collagen + elastic fibers + smooth muscle
Thicker layer
169
Are arteries or veins high in systemic arteries
Arteries
170
High blood pressure process of baroreceptor
Increase MAP (stretch in arterial wall)
Triggers baroreceptor
Baroreceptor increase AP to medulla
1) PNS message to heart:
Decrease FOC = decrease SV
Decrease HR
Overall decrease CO
2) SNS ease
Arteries = vasodilate = decrease TPR
Vein = dilate
3) OVERALL
Decrease CO and TPR
= decrease MAP
171
Hypercapnia process of chemoreceptor
Increase CO2
Decrease O2 and pH
Triggers chemoreceptor
Chemoreceptor message to medulla
1) SNS message to arteries
Vasoconstriction
Increase TPR
2) SNS message to veins
Vasoconstriction
Ventricular filling
Increase HR
Increase SV
Overall increase CO
3) OVERALL
Increase CO and increase TPR
= increase MAP
172
Does hypercapnia and hypocapnia cause vasodilation or vasoconstriction of arterioles
Hypercapnia = vasodilation
Hypocapnia = vasocontriction
173
Sympathetic activity influence on HR (sinoatrial node)
Noradrenaline (& adrenaline) acting on β1 adrenergic receptors
HR increases
174
Parasympathetic activity influence on HR (sinoatrial node)
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) via acetylcholine acting on muscarinic receptors
HR decreases
175
Positive and negative chronotropic factors do what
* Positive chronotropic factors = increase HR
* Negative chronotropic factors = decrease HR
176
How do calcium ions effect the function of coagulation
Allow coagulation to occur
177
Valves of each of the vessels
Arteries: do not have valves
Veins: periphera valve
178
Valves of the heart
Tricuspid: right atrium and ventricle
Bicuspid: left atrium and ventricle
Pulmonary: right ventricle and pulmonary artery
179
Intra alveolar pressure
The force exerted by gases within the alveoli
180
Atmospheric pressure
Is the force exerted by gases present in the atmosphere
181
A change in volume of the thoracic cavity does what
Inspiration: increase thoracic cavity volume: increase lung volume: decrease intrapulmonary pressure
182
What happens when surfactant production decreases
Inspiration is harder
183
Oxyghaemoglobin chem symbol
HbO2
184
Deoxyhaemoglobin chem symbol
HHb
185
Haemoglobin chemical symbol
Hb
186
What two things does saturation depend on
Partial pressure of O2
Affinity of haemoglobin to bind O2
187
What is the functional relationship between haemoglobin and pH?
pH increases
Acidity decreases
Co2 is acidic
Need more CO2
Hb binds to CO2
188
Respiratory centre
Medulla oblongata
Regulates respiratory movements
189
Blood flow order
Arteries -> atrioles -> capillaries -> veins
190
Quite inspiration
Active process (muscle contraction)
Increased thoracic volume = decreased pressure
191
Quite inspiration muscles
Diaphragm: separating thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
* Dome shaped at rest and flattens during contraction
External intercostal muscles:
* On contraction, Lifts ribs up and out
192
Forced inspiration consists of what muscles
Accessory inspiratory muscles:
Other muscles that are active during FORCED inspiration
* Scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, trapezius
Contraction of accessory inspiratory muscles -> increased thoracic volume -> decreased pressure
193
Quite expiratory consists of
Passive process (no muscle contraction)
Inspiratory muscles relax -> decrease thoracic volume -> increased pressure
194
Forced expiration muscles
Internal intercostal muscles
Abdominal muscles
Compress abdomen (push diaphragm up)
195
Which structures in the lungs allow for gas exchange?
Alveoli
196
What occurs in the bronchioles when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?
Fight or flight
Increased heart rate
Bronchiole dilation
Increased diameter
197
Sympathetic nervous system ganglion structure
Short pre ganglionic: acetylcholine
Long post ganglionic: noradrenaline
198
Parasympathetic nervous system ganglion structure
Long pre ganglionic: acetylcholine
Short post ganglionic: acetylcholine
199
Ogliodendroctye
Makes myelin
200
Astrocyte
Structure support
Nutrients for cells
200
Microglia
Macrophage: brain immune system
201
Ependymal
produce CSF and lines ventricle
202
Schwann cells
Ogliodendrocyte
203
Satellite cell
Astrocyte
204
Glutamate
Excitory neurotransmitter
205
GABA
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
206
Frontal lobe
Motor control
Language production
207
Parietal lobe
Senses
208
Occipital lobe
Vision
209
Temporal
Audition
Language comprehension
210
Cerebro spinal fluid
Supports brain
Cushions structures
Transports messages and waste
211
Corpus callosum
Lateralisation
212
Brainstem
Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
213
Medulla oblongata
Regulates visceral
214
Pons
Information to cerebellum and thalamus
215
Midbrain
Motor control
Sleep
Arousal
Temperature regulation
216
Innate reflexes
Grasp reflex: grabbing
Moro reflex: protective + body balance
217
Visceral reflexes
Automatic: involuntary
Somatic: voluntary
218
Spinal + cranial reflexes
Spinal: integrating centre in spine
Cranial: integrating centre in brain
219
Mono + poly synaptic
Mono: one synapses (patella)
Poly: more synapses (withdrawal)
220
Four spinal reflexes
Stretch: monitors muscle length
Tendon: monitors tension to prevent tendon damage
Flexor/withdrawal: pain receptor activates
Crossed extensor: keeps you from falling over
221
Sensory and visceral stimuli travel via
Ascending afferent pathway via dorsal root
AAD
222
Motor neurons travel from motor cortex via
Descending efferent pathway via ventral root
223
Neurotransmitters are released when
Open voltage gated calcium channels to let calcium ions in
224
Most numerous white blood cell
Neutrophil
225
Actin and myosin thickness
Actin = thin
Myosin = thick
226
What are calcium ions released from
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
227
Order of reflex travel
Receptor
Dorsal root
Ventral root
Motor neuron
