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1
Q

Components of the skeletal system

A
  • Bones
  • Cartilage
  • Ligaments
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2
Q

Avascular

A

Lacks blood vessels

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3
Q

What structures are avascular

A

ligaments, cartilage, tendons

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4
Q

Articular/hyaline cartilage

A

Support with some flexibility
(e.g. on bone ends in joints)

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5
Q

Types of cartilage:

A

Articular/hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage

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6
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Firm but elastic support

Allows some stretch and recoil

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6
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Resists compression + absorbs pressure
(e.g. intervertebral discs)

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7
Q

Functions of the Skeletal system

A

Structural support for soft tissues
Mineral homeostasis
Blood cell production
Triglyceride storage

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8
Q

Vertebrae is made up of

A
  • 7 cervical
  • 12 thoracic
  • 5 lumbar
  • 1 fused sacral
  • 1 fused coccyx
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9
Q

Depressions & openings (bone marking)

A

Allow passageway for blood vessels & nerves

ligaments & tendons

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10
Q

Property of crystallised mineral salts

A

Hardness & rigidity of bone
Resists compression forces

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11
Q

Processes (bone markings)

A

Projections or bone growth

Form part of joints

Provide attachment points for ligaments and tendons

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12
Q

Bone composition

A
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13
Q

Property of collagen fibres

A

Flexibility

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14
Q

Bone classification

A
  • By shape
  • By structure

Compact versus spongy bone

Organic versus inorganic components

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15
Q

Flat bone purpose

A

Protect internal organs
Attachment site for muscles

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16
Q

Irregular bone purpose

A

Attatchment site: ligaments

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16
Q

Short bone purpose

A

provide stability, support and limited motion

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17
Q

Long bone purpose

A

levers

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18
Q

Sesamoid bone purpose

A

protect tendons by helping overcome compression forces

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19
Q

Organic bones

A

Flexibility + tensile strength to bone
(Ability to resist tearing, stretching and some twisting forces)

  • Primarily collagen fibres
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20
Q

Inorganic bone

A

Gives hardness, rigidity

Ability to resist compression forces
Supports body tissues

  • Minerals: calcium, ions, phosphates and carbonate
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21
Q

Diaphysis

A

bone shaft of compact bone

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22
Q

Epiphysis

A

Ends of bone; spongy bone below layer of compact bone

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22
Q

Red marrow

A

in spongy bone (blood cell production)

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23
Q

Metaphysis

A

Joins diaphysis and epiphysis; spongy bone below layer of compact bone

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24
Q

Yellow marrow

A

in medullary cavity (lipid storage)

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25
Q

Articular cartilage (long bone anatomy)

A

protects bone ends

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25
Q

Periosteum

A

outside of bone

  • Two layers: fibrous outer & cellular inner
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26
Q

Endosteum

A

In medullary cavity
Covers spongy bone

  • Contains bone cells
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26
Q

Osteoblasts

A

build bone

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27
Q

Osteoclasts

A

breakdown bone

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27
Q

Osteogenic

A

produce osteoblasts

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27
Q

Osteocytes

A

Maintain matrix and mineral content

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28
Q

Compact bone

A

Arrangment of tissue: osteons
Location: diaphysis and outside of epiphysis
Properties: withstand compression

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29
Q

Spongy bone

A

Arrangment of tissue: trabecular
Location: in epiphysis
Properties: resist forces

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30
Q

Fibrous joints

A

No joint cavity

Bones held together by dense, irregular CT

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31
Q

Cartilaginous joints

A

no joint cavity

bones connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage

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31
Q

Stenosis (fibrous joint)

A

complete fusion of two bones into one

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32
Q

Suture (fibrous joint)

A

Bones held very tightly together
By layer of dense, irregular CT
Only found in the skull

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33
Q

Gomphosis

A

a ligament holding a tooth in jaw socket

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34
Q

Synarthrosis

A

an immovable joint
(suture and stenosis, synchondrosis)

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34
Q

Symphysis (cartilaginous)

A

has a pad of fibrocartilage between the bones

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34
Q

Synchondrosis (cartilaginous)

A

has hyaline cartilage

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35
Q

Amphiarthrosis

A

a slightly moveable joint
(interosseous membranes, syndesmosis and symphysis)

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36
Q

Diarthrosis

A

freely moveable joint

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36
Q

Functions of muscular tissue

A

Producing body movements

Stabilising body positions

Support soft tissues

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37
Q

Excitability

A

tissue responds to a stimulus

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38
Q

Contractility

A

tissue can shorten & generate force

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39
Q

Elasticity

A

tissue can return to original length

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39
Q

Extensibility

A

tissue can be stretched

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40
Q

Muscule types control (involuntary vs voluntary)

A

Smooth: involuntary
Cardiac: involuntary
Skeletal: voluntary

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41
Q

Muscle types influenced by

A

Smooth: hormones, stretching, ANS
Cardiac: hormones, ANS
Skeletal: hormones

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42
Q

Muscle types are they pacemaker

A

Smooth: yes
Cardiac: yes
Skeletal: no

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43
Q

Muscle types uninucleated vs multinucleated

A

Smooth: uni
Cardiac: uni
Skeletal: multi

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44
Q

Muscle types divide and generate

A

Smooth: can divide and generate
Cardiac: cant do both
Skeletal: cant divide can repair

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45
Q

Muscle types straited vs non striated

A

Smooth: non
Cardiac: striated
Skeletal: striated

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46
Q

Hypertrophy

A
  • Increase use
  • Increase tissue size (because of increase in SIZE of cells)
  • E.g. skeletal muscle
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47
Q

Hyperplasia

A
  • Increase of tissue size (because of increase in cell NUMBER)
  • E.g. smooth muscle (can also use hypertrophy)
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48
Q

Atrophy

A
  • Decrease use
  • Decrease in tissue size (because of decrease in SIZE of cells)
  • E.g. skeletal muscle
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49
Q

Sarcolemma

A

cell membrane

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50
Q

Transverse tubules

A

filled with extracellular fluid

action potential can run in

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50
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

surrounds structures

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50
Q

Skeletal muscle organisation biggest to smallest

A

Muscle
Fascicle
Fibre
Myofibril
Myofilament

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51
Q

Tropomyosin

A

covers sites where actin could bind to myosin

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51
Q

Troponin

A

holds tropomyosin in place

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52
Q

Three functions of blood

A

Transportation
Regulation
Protection

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52
Q

Sarcomere

A

stores and retrieves calcium ions

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53
Q

How/what does blood transport

A
  • Oxygen from the lungs to cells
  • Carbon dioxide from cells to the lungs for exhalation
  • Nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to cells
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54
Q

Two ways blood regulates

A

Maintain homeostasis of all body fluids
Adjust body temperature via a negative feedback loop

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55
Q

Blood protection protects from

A

White blood cells protect against

  • External threats
  • Internal threats
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56
Q

Characteristics of blood

A
  • pH: 7.35 - 7.45
  • Temperature: 38ºC
  • Viscosity: about 5x thicker than water
  • Colour: varies with oxygen content. Bright red (oxygenated), dark red (deoxygenated)
  • Volume: about 8% of adult body weight.
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57
Q

What are the three major groups of plasma proteins

A

Albumin
Globulins
Fibrinogen

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58
Q

Albumin (plasma protein)

A
  • Made by the liver
  • Transport vehicle for fatty acids, calcium and steroid hormones
  • Contributes to osmotic pressure of blood
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59
Q

Globulins (plasma protein)

A
  • Immunoglobulins (antibodies): made by plasma cells, bind to specific antigens and mark them for destruction by specialised white blood cells
  • Alpha and beta globulins: made by the liver, transport iron, lipids, and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K to the cells; contribute to osmotic pressure.
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60
Q

Fibrinogen (plasma protein)

A
  • Made by the liver
  • Form clots
  • Produce long, insoluble strands of fibrin.
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61
Q

What do RBC have and dont have

A

No nucleus
No mitochondria
No endoplasmic reticulum
Have structural proteins
Have biconcave disks

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62
Q

Vascular spasm four steps

A

Damage to the blood vessel

Triggers contraction of the smooth muscle in the vessel wall.

Narrows vessel lumen at the site of injury

Results in a decrease in blood flow to the area

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62
Q

Haemostasis steps

A
  • Vascular spasm: the formation of a platelet plug
  • Coagulation (blood clotting)
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63
Q

Haemostasis

A

Process where the body seals a ruptured blood vessel and prevents further loss of blood.

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64
Q

Coagulation

A

Blood clotting:
Cascade of enzymatic reactions -> fibrinogen -> fibrin

Fibrin mesh grows -> platelets and blood cells are trapped -> forms a clot that seals off the damaged vessel.

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64
Q

Platelet plug formation

A

Prevent further loss of blood from a damaged vessel

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65
Q

Extrinsic pathway (coagulation)

A
  • Triggered when clotting factors outside the blood vessel leak into blood
  • Fewer steps
  • Begins within seconds
  • Damaged cells release tissue factor
  • Activates factor X which combines with factor V in the presence of calcium to form prothrombinase
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66
Q

Intrinsic pathway (coagulation)

A
  • Triggered when clotting factors come into contact with substances inside the blood vessel
  • More steps
  • Takes minutes to begin
  • Begins with circulating proenzymes
  • Platelets releases factors
  • Activates Factor X which combines with factor V in the presence of calcium to form prothrombinase
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66
Q

Common pathway (coagulation)

A
  • Where extrinsic and intrinsic pathways converge
  • Prothrombinase (and calcium) converts prothrombin -> thrombin
  • Thrombin (and calcium) converts
    fibriogen -> fibrin
  • Fibrin forms the threads of the clot
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67
Q

Clot retraction results in

A
  • Decreases the size of the damaged area
  • Decreases the residual bleeding and stabilises the injury
  • Permits healing
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68
Q

Fibrinolysis

A

Clog degrades:
* Thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) activate plasminogen

  • Plasminogen produces plasmin
  • Plasmin digests fibrin strands.
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69
Q

Pericardium (layer of heart)

A

Outer lining of the heart

  • Protects and confines the heart in the mediastinum
  • Made of: superficial fibrous pericardium, and deeper serous pericardium (outer parietal layer + inner visceral layer)
  • Pericardial cavity between these two layers contains serous fluid (pericardial fluid)
  • Fluid: lubricates the layers of the serous pericardium as the heart moves
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70
Q

Myocardium (layer of heart)

A

Composed of cardiac muscle tissue

Responsible for the pumping action of the heart.

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71
Q

Endocardium (layer of heart)

A

Layer of endothelium with overlying thin layer of connective tissue.

  • Lines chambers of the heart
  • Covers the values of the heart
  • Smooth to reduce friction as the blood passes through the heart.
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72
Q

Pulmonary pump

A

send blood to the lungs

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73
Q

Systemic pump

A

delivers blood to/from the body

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74
Q

Inferior vena cava

A

Carries oxygenated blood from lower body to right atrium

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75
Q

Superior vena cava

A

Carries deoxygenated blood from upper body to right atrium

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76
Q

Systole

A

contraction

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77
Q

Direction of blood flow

A

High pressure -> low

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78
Q

Blood pressure equation

A

MAP = CO x TPR

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79
Q

Cardiac output equation

A

Cardiac output (mL/min)= SV x HR

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80
Q

Regulation of TPR through which two processes

A

Vasodilation
Vasoconstriction

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81
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

activation of sympathetic system

  • Smooth muscle in blood vessel walls contract = increase TPR
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82
Q

Vasodilation

A

decreased activation of sympathetic system

  • Smooth muscle in blood vessel walls relax = decrease resistance (TPR)
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83
Q

Cardiac reserve

A

difference between resting and maximal CO

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84
Q

What is resting HR maintained by

A

Cardioinhibitory centre

Occurs via parasympathetic vagus nerve

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85
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

Small mass of specialized tissue located in the atria

Generates an electrical stimulus regularly

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86
Q

Tachycardia

A

Abnormally fast HR >100

87
Q

Autoregulation
(cardiovasular regulation)

A

local control at the blood vessel site causing immediate localised homeostatic adjustments

87
Q

Bradycardia

88
Q

Hypoxia

A

decreased partial pressure of O2

89
Q

Hypercapnia

A

increased partial pressure of CO2

buildup of CO2 in bloodstream

  • Blood PCO2 > 45 mmHg
  • Increased CO2 + H2O -> Increased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - + Increased H+
90
Q

Acidosis

A

decreased pH
(increased concentration of H+)

91
Q

Hyperkalaemia

A

increased concentration of K+ extracellularly

92
Q

Local factors that cause vasodilation
(autoregulation)

A
  • Hypoxia
  • Hypercapnia
  • Acidosis
  • Hyperkalaemia
  • Increased adenosine concentration
  • Increased temperature
  • Increased osmolarity
93
Q

Cardiovascular regulation occurs due to

A

Autoregulation
Neural mechanisms
Endocrine mechanisms

94
Q

Neural mechanisms

A

respond quickly to changes

95
Q

Endocrine mechanisms

A

direct long-term changes
1) Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
2) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
3) Erythropoietin (EPO)

96
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A

↑ blood pressure caused by

  • powerful vasoconstriction
  • ↑ blood volume
96
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A
  • ↑ blood pressure by ↑ blood volume
  • Can cause vasoconstriction
97
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A
  • Released at kidneys
  • Responds to low blood pressure, low O2 content in blood
  • Stimulates RBC production→ ↑ blood pressure
98
Q

Baroreceptor

A

located in corroded sinus and aortic arch

  • Respond to the degree of stretch in the arterial walls
  • Baroreceptors send action potential to medulla
  • Medulla regulates BP
99
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Receptors sensing changes in the composition of arterial blood

100
Q

Two types of chemoreceptors

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors

100
Q

Lower respiratory tract

A

larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli

101
Q

Central chemoreceptors

A

Located in the medulla oblongata

  • Highly sensitive to hypercapnia and acidosis
101
Q

Peripheral chemoreceptors

A

PO
Located in carotid and aortic bodies

  • Highly sensitive to hypoxia (decreased O2)
  • Moderately sensitive to hypercapnia and acidosis
101
Q

Upper respiratory tract

A

nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and pharynx

102
Q

Respiratory zone

A
  • Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
  • Where gas exchange takes place
103
Q

Conducting zone

A
  • Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
  • No gas exchange
104
Q

Conchae

A

increase SA
produce a turbulent airflow to delay it for warming, humidifying and cleaning the air to protect the lungs

105
Q

Vestibule

A

is continuous with the skin outside

lined with keratinised stratified squamous epithelium to withstand mechanical insults

106
Q

Roof of the nasal cavity

A

is lined with sensory cells of the olfactory mucosa

helps with smell sensation

107
Q

Respiratory epithelium

A

lines posterior part of nasal cavity

108
Q

Goblet cells

A

secrete mucus, which can trap dust, debris and pathogens

109
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

Extending from the epiglottis to the oesophagus.

  • It opens into the larynx anteriorly and oesophagus posteriorly.
  • The common path for food and air
  • The stratified squamous epithelium changes to non-keratinised in this region
109
Q

Cilia

A

beat in unison towards the pharynx to remove the mucus with damaging foreign particles

110
Q

Paranasal sinuses

A

Hollow cavities in the facial bones, continuous with nasal cavity

111
Q

Nasopharynx

A

Lined with respiratory epithelium

  • Aids warming, humidifying, and filtering air
111
Q

Oropharynx

A

Lies posterior to the oral cavity, & is common path for food and air.

  • Lined with non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.
112
Q

Thyroid cartilage

A

Enlarges into Adam’s apple after puberty in males.

  • Made of smooth Hyaline cartilage.
113
Q

Epiglottis

A

It covers the opening of the larynx (glottis) during swallowing, so that food and drinks cannot enter the airways.
* Leaf-like elastic cartilage.

114
Q

Cricoid cartilage

A

hyaline cartilage

  • Found below the thyroid cartilage and the two are linked by a membrane.
  • Cricothyroidotomy: this membrane is cut open during emergency if airways are obstructed.
115
Q

Layers of trachea

A
  • Submucosa
  • Adventitia
  • Mucosa (respiratory epithelium and lamina propria)
  • Hyaline cartilage
  • Circumferential smooth muscle
115
Q

Type I alveolar cells/pneumocytes

A

Lines 90% of alveoli

Thin simple squamous epithelia

Facilitate easy diffusion of gases

115
Q

Vocal cords (folds)

A

Membranous tissue arising from the sides of the larynx and forming a slit-like opening called glottis.

  • The movement of air through the glottis vibrates the vocal cords and produce sound/speech.
116
Q

Type II alveolar cells/pneumocytes

A

lines 5-10% of alveoli

  • Simple cuboidal tissue

When breathing out, secrete surfactant to

  • Reduce surface tension
  • Prevent collapse of the alveoli
117
Q

Boyles law

A

P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
When intra-alveolar volume ↑ → Pressure ↓

117
Q

Effect of pH on oxygen affinity and dissociation

A

Tissues have higher CO2 = higher acidity

  • Decreased pH: lower O2 binding affinity: binds to less CO2
  • Increased pH: higher O2 binding affinity: binds to more CO2

O2 dissociates when blood reaches tissues

118
Q

Effect of temperature on haemoglobin affinity and dissociation

A
  • Increased temperature: lower O2 binding affinity
  • Decreased temperature: higher O2 binding affinity

Effect significant in active tissues generating large amounts of heat

119
Q

Hypercapnia

A

Buildup of CO2 in bloodstream
* Blood PCO2 > 45 mmHg

  • Increased CO2 + H2O -> Increased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - + Increased H+
120
Q

Main causes of hypercapnia

A
  • Hypoventilation: inadequate O2 delivery and CO2 removal
121
Q

Consequences of hypercapnia

A

Respiratory acidosis
* ↓ CNS activity

  • Lethargy, coma and death
122
Q

Hypocapnia

A

Lack of CO2 in bloodstream

Blood PCO2 < 40 mm Hg

  • No breathing until level reaches PCO2 ≥ 40 mm Hg
  • Decreased CO2 + H2O -> Decreased H2CO3 -> HCO3 - Decreased H+
123
Q

Tidal volume (TV)

A

Amount of air inspired + expired during a normal breath

124
Q

Consequence of Hypocapnia

A

alkalosis

  • ↑ CNS activity
  • ‘Pins and needles’, dizziness
125
Q

Cause of Hypocapnia

A

hyperventilation (increased CO2 removal)

126
Q

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

Additional amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation

127
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

Additional amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

128
Q

Residual volume (RV)

A

Amount of air left after ERV is exhaled

128
Q

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

Amount of air that can be inhaled after the end of a normal expiration.

IC = TV + IRV

128
Q

Vital capacity (VC)

A

Measures the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle.

VC = ERV + TV + IRV

129
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

Measurement of the total amount of air that the lung can hold

TLC: RV + ERV + TV + IRV

129
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

Measures the amount of additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

FRC = RV+ERV.

130
Q

Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

A

measures how much air can be forced out of the lung over a specific period

130
Q

FEV1/FVC ratio is high

A

the lungs are not compliant

  • Lungs are stiff can’t bend properly
  • Patients exhale most of the lung volume very quickly
131
Q

FEV1/FVC ratio is low

A

Resistance in the lung (characteristic of asthma)

  • Long time to reach the maximal exhalation volume.
  • Exhale lung volume very slowly
132
Q

Respiratory minute volume (RMV)

A

Total amount of air moving into the respiratory passages each minute

133
Q

Anatomic dead space

A

Air in the conducting zone is not available for gas exchange

133
Q

Alveolar ventilation equation

A

(TV − Anatomic dead space) × BR

134
Q

Haemoglobin

A

4 globlin proteins + 1 haem
Haem attatches to O2
Haem + 4 O2 (reversible)
Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) <-> Deoxyhaemoglobin (HHb)

135
Q

Oxygen saturation

A

Saturation: all four haems are attached to O2

Haem binds to 1st O2 -> haemoglobin changes shape -> further uptake of O2 -> increased affinity

136
Q

Transporting CO2 as …

A

70% carried as bicarbonate ion in plasma

23% bound to haemoglobin

7% dissolved in plasma

137
Q

Compensation for acidosis/alkalosis occurs by

A
  • Chemical buffers in seconds
  • Respiratory changes in minutes
138
Q

Capacities

A

measurements of 2+ volumes

139
Q

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

A

measures total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled

140
Q

FEV1/FVC ratio is high

A

Lungs are not compliant

  • Lungs are stiff can’t bend properly (characteristic of lung fibrosis)
  • Exhale lung volume very quickly
141
Q

FEV1/FVC ratio is low

A

There is resistance in the lung (characteristic of asthma)

  • Long time to reach the maximal exhalation volume.
  • Exhale lung volume very slowly
142
Q

Regulation of SV through what

A

Intrinsic control
Extrinsic control

143
Q

Intrinsic control (regulation of SV)

A

If ventricular wall stretched before contraction -> contractile force increases

If End Diastolic Volume increases -> SV increases -> CO increases

Ventricle chamber stretches & puts pressure on ventricular wall

144
Q

Extrinsic control (regulation of SV)

A

Stimulation of sympathetic activity

  • Noradrenaline (& adrenaline injection) acting on β1 adrenergic receptors.
  • Effect: increased contractile force
145
Q

Vasomotor centre

A

Cluster of sympathetic neurons in medulla that oversee changes in blood vessel diameter

146
Q

Blood through the heart (right)

A

Superior/inferior vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs

147
Q

Blood through the heart (left)

A

Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta
Body

148
Q

SA node

A

pacemaker of the heart

Autorythmic

Doesn’t need stimulation

In right atrium

149
Q

Autorythmic

A

sets its own rythm

150
Q

Depolarisation

A

Makes heart contract

151
Q

Repolarisation

152
Q

Bundle branches

A

Send messages to inner walls of heart

153
Q

Purkinje fibres

A

Allow messages to travel on the outer walls of the heart

154
Q

Steps of ECG conduction

A

1) Message at SA node

2) Message is sent to the right and left atrium: makes atrium contract

3) Message spreads down to AV node

4) Message is sent to AV bundle, bundle branches, purkinje fibres

5) Messages travel on inner walls of heart via bundle branches

6) Messages travel on outer walls of heart via Purkinje fibres

7) Message causes ventricles to contract

155
Q

P wave

A

depolarisation of atria (contraction of atria: step 2)

156
Q

QRS wave

A

depolarisation of ventricles (contraction of ventricle: step 7)

Repolarisation of atria: hidden

157
Q

T wave

A

repolarisation of the ventricles (relaxation of ventricles)

158
Q

Cardiac cycle

A

Atrial systole:

1) Atrial contraction: depolarisaton (blood from atrium -> ventricles)

Atrial diastole:

2) Ventricles contract: depolarisation (ventricular systole)

3) Increased ventricular pressure

4) Ventricle ejection (blood ejected to arteries)

5) Isovolumetric relaxation: repolarisation (ventricle diastole)

6) Ventricular filling

7) Blood comes from lungs and body to fill atria (restart)

159
Q

are arteries and veins efferent and afferent

A

Arteries (efferent vessels)

Veins (afferent vessels)

160
Q

Atriole

A

small artery

161
Q

Venule

A

small vein

162
Q

Tunica intima (artery)

A

Internal elastic membrane present

Rippled because of constriction

163
Q

The walls of arteries and veins contain what three layers

A

Tunica intima (innermost layer)

Tunica media (middle layer)

Tunica externa (tunica adventitia) outermost layer

164
Q

Tunica media (artery)

A

External elastic membrane present (in larger vessel)

Thick: smooth muscle + elastic fibre

165
Q

Tunica intima (vein)

A

No internal elastic membrane present

Smooth

166
Q

Tunica media (vein)

A

No external elastic membrane present

Thin: smooth muscle + collagen fibre

167
Q

Tunica externa (artery)

A

Collagen + elastic fibers

Thinner layer (apart from thicker artey)

168
Q

Tunica externa (vein)

A

Collagen + elastic fibers + smooth muscle

Thicker layer

169
Q

Are arteries or veins high in systemic arteries

170
Q

High blood pressure process of baroreceptor

A

Increase MAP (stretch in arterial wall)
Triggers baroreceptor
Baroreceptor increase AP to medulla
1) PNS message to heart:
Decrease FOC = decrease SV
Decrease HR
Overall decrease CO
2) SNS ease
Arteries = vasodilate = decrease TPR
Vein = dilate
3) OVERALL
Decrease CO and TPR
= decrease MAP

171
Q

Hypercapnia process of chemoreceptor

A

Increase CO2
Decrease O2 and pH
Triggers chemoreceptor
Chemoreceptor message to medulla
1) SNS message to arteries
Vasoconstriction
Increase TPR
2) SNS message to veins
Vasoconstriction
Ventricular filling
Increase HR
Increase SV
Overall increase CO
3) OVERALL
Increase CO and increase TPR
= increase MAP

172
Q

Does hypercapnia and hypocapnia cause vasodilation or vasoconstriction of arterioles

A

Hypercapnia = vasodilation
Hypocapnia = vasocontriction

173
Q

Sympathetic activity influence on HR (sinoatrial node)

A

Noradrenaline (& adrenaline) acting on β1 adrenergic receptors

HR increases

174
Q

Parasympathetic activity influence on HR (sinoatrial node)

A

Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) via acetylcholine acting on muscarinic receptors

HR decreases

175
Q

Positive and negative chronotropic factors do what

A
  • Positive chronotropic factors = increase HR
  • Negative chronotropic factors = decrease HR
176
Q

How do calcium ions effect the function of coagulation

A

Allow coagulation to occur

177
Q

Valves of each of the vessels

A

Arteries: do not have valves
Veins: periphera valve

178
Q

Valves of the heart

A

Tricuspid: right atrium and ventricle
Bicuspid: left atrium and ventricle
Pulmonary: right ventricle and pulmonary artery

179
Q

Intra alveolar pressure

A

The force exerted by gases within the alveoli

180
Q

Atmospheric pressure

A

Is the force exerted by gases present in the atmosphere

181
Q

A change in volume of the thoracic cavity does what

A

Inspiration: increase thoracic cavity volume: increase lung volume: decrease intrapulmonary pressure

182
Q

What happens when surfactant production decreases

A

Inspiration is harder

183
Q

Oxyghaemoglobin chem symbol

184
Q

Deoxyhaemoglobin chem symbol

185
Q

Haemoglobin chemical symbol

186
Q

What two things does saturation depend on

A

Partial pressure of O2
Affinity of haemoglobin to bind O2

187
Q

What is the functional relationship between haemoglobin and pH?

A

pH increases
Acidity decreases
Co2 is acidic
Need more CO2
Hb binds to CO2

188
Q

Respiratory centre

A

Medulla oblongata
Regulates respiratory movements

189
Q

Blood flow order

A

Arteries -> atrioles -> capillaries -> veins

190
Q

Quite inspiration

A

Active process (muscle contraction)
Increased thoracic volume = decreased pressure

191
Q

Quite inspiration muscles

A

Diaphragm: separating thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
* Dome shaped at rest and flattens during contraction

External intercostal muscles:
* On contraction, Lifts ribs up and out

192
Q

Forced inspiration consists of what muscles

A

Accessory inspiratory muscles:

Other muscles that are active during FORCED inspiration

  • Scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, trapezius

Contraction of accessory inspiratory muscles -> increased thoracic volume -> decreased pressure

193
Q

Quite expiratory consists of

A

Passive process (no muscle contraction)
Inspiratory muscles relax -> decrease thoracic volume -> increased pressure

194
Q

Forced expiration muscles

A

Internal intercostal muscles

Abdominal muscles
Compress abdomen (push diaphragm up)

195
Q

Which structures in the lungs allow for gas exchange?

196
Q

What occurs in the bronchioles when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?

A

Fight or flight
Increased heart rate
Bronchiole dilation
Increased diameter

197
Q

Sympathetic nervous system ganglion structure

A

Short pre ganglionic: acetylcholine
Long post ganglionic: noradrenaline

198
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system ganglion structure

A

Long pre ganglionic: acetylcholine
Short post ganglionic: acetylcholine

199
Q

Ogliodendroctye

A

Makes myelin

200
Q

Astrocyte

A

Structure support
Nutrients for cells

200
Q

Microglia

A

Macrophage: brain immune system

201
Q

Ependymal

A

produce CSF and lines ventricle

202
Q

Schwann cells

A

Ogliodendrocyte

203
Q

Satellite cell

204
Q

Glutamate

A

Excitory neurotransmitter

205
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

206
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Motor control
Language production

207
Q

Parietal lobe

208
Q

Occipital lobe

209
Q

Temporal

A

Audition
Language comprehension

210
Q

Cerebro spinal fluid

A

Supports brain
Cushions structures
Transports messages and waste

211
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Lateralisation

212
Q

Brainstem

A

Regulates heart rate and blood pressure

213
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Regulates visceral

214
Q

Pons

A

Information to cerebellum and thalamus

215
Q

Midbrain

A

Motor control
Sleep
Arousal
Temperature regulation

216
Q

Innate reflexes

A

Grasp reflex: grabbing
Moro reflex: protective + body balance

217
Q

Visceral reflexes

A

Automatic: involuntary
Somatic: voluntary

218
Q

Spinal + cranial reflexes

A

Spinal: integrating centre in spine
Cranial: integrating centre in brain

219
Q

Mono + poly synaptic

A

Mono: one synapses (patella)
Poly: more synapses (withdrawal)

220
Q

Four spinal reflexes

A

Stretch: monitors muscle length

Tendon: monitors tension to prevent tendon damage

Flexor/withdrawal: pain receptor activates

Crossed extensor: keeps you from falling over

221
Q

Sensory and visceral stimuli travel via

A

Ascending afferent pathway via dorsal root

AAD

222
Q

Motor neurons travel from motor cortex via

A

Descending efferent pathway via ventral root

223
Q

Neurotransmitters are released when

A

Open voltage gated calcium channels to let calcium ions in

224
Q

Most numerous white blood cell

A

Neutrophil

225
Q

Actin and myosin thickness

A

Actin = thin
Myosin = thick

226
Q

What are calcium ions released from

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

227
Q

Order of reflex travel

A

Receptor
Dorsal root
Ventral root
Motor neuron

Biology (7 decks)

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