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Anatomy and Physiology > A + P TEST 2 > Flashcards

A + P TEST 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what do body membranes do?

A

they line or cover, protect, and lubricate body surfaces.

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2
Q

body membranes are divided into 2 major groups:

A
  1. the epithelial membranes

2. the connective tissue membranes

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3
Q

the epithelial membranes:

A

include the cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes

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4
Q

the connective tissue membranes:

A

represented by the synovial membranes

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5
Q

all epithelial membranes contain what:

A

an epithelia sheet,

and are always combined with an underlying layer

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6
Q

the cutaneous membrane, ie your _________, is the largest organ in the body

A

skin

unlike other epithelia membranes, the cutaneous membrane is exposed to air and is a dry membrane

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7
Q

serous membranes occur in _______

A

in pairs

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8
Q

the parietal layer lines a specific portion of the body cavity. it folds in on itself to form the __________, which covers the outside of the organs in that body cavity

A

the visceral layer

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9
Q

_____________ line all the body cavities that are exposed to the exterior.

A

mucous membranes
the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts are all exposed to the exterior of the body and secrete mucous for protection and lube. the exception is the urinary tract, which does not secrete mucous for protection, therefore making the risk of infection higher

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10
Q

connective tissue membranes consist of ______________

A

various connective tissues such as tendons and synovial membranes. they surround joint, providing a smooth surface that excretes a lubricating fluid.

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11
Q

what else do synovial membranes line besides joints?

A

connective tissues called bursaes and tendon sheaths

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12
Q

describe bursae and tendon sheath

A

the bursae is a closed sac line with a synovial membrane and filled with fluid
the tendon sheath is a layer of membrane around a tendon

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13
Q

what is your cutaneous membrane?

A

your skin

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14
Q

your skin and it’s appendages (sweat and oil glands, hair and nails) have specific functions, mainly to protect. Together these organs make up the ______________

A

integumentary system

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15
Q

function of the skin include :

A
  • heat regulation
  • discriminatory membrane- keeps chemicals out and is waterproof to keep water and nutrients in. also bacteria out
  • protection from the cold- our blanket as such-insulation
  • protection from bumps and damage to internal organs
  • cools the body- evaporation
  • synthesizes vit D
  • blocks UV radiation
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16
Q

the skin in composed of 2 types of tissue:

A

the epidermis: the outer layer, made up of epithelium that is capable of becoming hard and tough
the dermis: that is underneath and made up of dense connective tissue

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17
Q

when would the epidermis and dermis ever separate?

A

the epidermis and dermis are firmly connected. however, a burn, or friction, may cause them to separate, resulting in a blister

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18
Q

the epidermis has special cells called _________ that produce a pigment called _________

A

melanocytes
melanin
the pigment ranges in color from yellow-brown-black. when the skin is exposed to sun, the melanocytes are activated into producing more pigment, therefore producing a tan. Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot

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19
Q

the dermis is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to hold the body together. The dense connective tissue making up the dermis consists of 2 major regions:

A
  1. the papillary layer

2. the reticular layer

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20
Q

the papillary layer:

A

or the dermal papillae are peg-like projections that cause ridges in fingers and toes(ie fingerprints)

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21
Q

the reticular layer:

A

is the deepest skin layer. it contains the blood vessels, sweat and oil glads

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22
Q

the dermis also has a large ___________ that sends messages to the ___________ for interpretations

A

nerve supply

central nervous system

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23
Q

what are the 3 pigments that contribute to skin colour?

A

yellow
reddish brown
black

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24
Q

excessive sun exposure depresses the immune system?

A

yes

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25
Q

skin appendages include the :

A

cutaneous glands,
hair and hair follicles, and nails.
each play a role in maintaining body homeostasis.

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26
Q

cutaneous glands are:

A

all exocrine glands that release their secretions to the skin via ducts. there are 2 types of glands: sebaceous and sweat glands

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27
Q

sebaceous (oil) gland

A

are all over the body, they secrete sebum for lube and are regulated by hormones. if an oil gland becomes blocked, a whitehead appears; if the accumulated material oxidizes and dries out, it darkens, forming a blackhead

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28
Q

2 types of sweat glands:

A
  1. eccrine glands

2. apocrine glands

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29
Q

eccrine glands:

A

produce sweat, a bit acidic to limit the growth of bacteria. They also play a part in cooling body temp.

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30
Q

apocrine glands:

A

empty their secretions into hair follicles. These secretions contain fatty acids and proteins. When skin bacteria feeds on this secretion, it creates an odour. Apocrine glands start to function around puberty and have no effect on body temp

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31
Q

Hair

A

grows from hair follicles in the skin. we are born with a certain number. Eyelashes shield eyes from foreign particles, nose hairs prevent debris from entering the respiratory tract.
Our body hair has lost much of its importance; however, hair animals us it for insulation

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32
Q

hair follicles:

A

have small bands of smooth muscle cells called arrector pili. when these muscles contract, the hair is pulled upright causing goosebumps.

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33
Q

nail

A

Nails: hardened keratin, a rough protein that is waterproof and protects exposed skin surfaces. Nails are translucent in color, but bc of the rich blood supply in the dermis layer, their colour appears pink. This is an important factor when differentiating disease.

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34
Q

Raynauds’s:

A

nail beds lose all colour due to the shut down of capillaries

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35
Q

Cyanosis

A

low oxygen in circulation- blue condition

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36
Q

bright red nails

A

temp may be increased as in fever

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37
Q

white spots

A

zinc or calcium deficiency

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38
Q

nail ridges:

A

mineral deficiency

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39
Q

apart from contact dermatitis, most skin problems stem from:

A

poor digestive tract. Some skin problems may relate to hormonal imbalances encountered predominantly during adolescence, or to allergy and toxicity.

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40
Q

vitamins and minerals for healthy skin and hair:

A

skin: A, C, E, B- complex, zinc, and EFA hair:vit B-complex, antioxidants and zinc

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41
Q

some types of cytoplasmic organelles

A 
ribosomes
endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
lysosomes
peroxisomes
mitochondria
cytoskeleton 
centrioles
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42
Q

ribosomes

A

sites for protein synthesis

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43
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

transports protein and lipid components

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44
Q

golgi apparatus

A

processes an packages proteins

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45
Q

lysosomes

A

contains digestive enzymes

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46
Q

peroxisomes

A

disarm free radicals

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47
Q

mitochondria

A

machine for cellular energy

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48
Q

cytoskeleton

A

protein structures-bones and muscles for cell

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49
Q

centrioles

A

help with movement of cells

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50
Q

some cells have tiny projections called ________ that move substances across the surface of the cell

A

Cilia
ie: respiratory tract is lined with ciliated cells that move mucus up and away from lungs. when they are longer they are called flagella. Their purpose is to propel the cell itself. the only flagellated cell in the body is the sperm.

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51
Q

passive transport

A

diffusion and filtration

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52
Q

active transport

A

solute pumping and bulk transport

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53
Q

describe diffusion and filtration

A

diffusion: the process of which molecules move away from a region where they are more concentrated to less concentrated
filtration: the process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure.

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54
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane, like the plasma membrane.
when a cell is surrounded by a solution, it presents an osmotic pressure on the cell. This reflects the solute concentration of the solution surrounding the cell.

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55
Q

isotonic solutions

A

such as interstitial fluid, have the same solute and water concentrations as cells do, therefore no visible changes will occur to the cell.

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56
Q

hypertonic solutions

A

contain more solutes than there are inside the cell, therefore water will leave the cell causing it to shrink

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57
Q

hypotonic solutions

A

contain fewer solutes, and more water outside of the cell than in the cell, therefore the cell will expand and grow.

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58
Q

cell energy or______

A

ATP

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59
Q

an example of an active process

A

whenever a cell uses some of it’s energy (ATP) supply to move substances across the membrane
ie: solute pumping
bulk transport

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60
Q

solute pumping

A

moves substances across the membrane by protein carriers found along the membrane itself

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61
Q

Bulk transport

A

moves substances into and out of the cell in 2 ways: exocytosis and endocytosis

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62
Q

exocytosis:

A

moves substances out of the cells

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63
Q

endocytosis

A

into the cell

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64
Q

4 main groups of body tissue

A

epithelia tissue
connective tissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue

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65
Q

epithelial tissue

A

covers surfaces, lines cavities and forms glands

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66
Q

connective tissue

A

supports, protects, and binds tissue to all parts of the body

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67
Q

muscle tissue

A

contracts or lengthens to produce movement

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68
Q

nervous tissue

A

conducts nerve impulses.

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69
Q

regeneration tissue repair

A

the injured tissue is replaced by the same type of cell

70
Q

fibrosis tissue repair

A

the wound is repaired with scare tissue

71
Q

the skeletal system

A

provides an internal framework for the body, protects the internal organs, and binds to skeletal muscles so that the contraction of muscle will produce movement.

72
Q

how many bones in the body?

A

206

73
Q

the skeleton is divided into 2 regions :

A

the axial skeleton

the appendicular skeleton

74
Q

the axial skeleton

A

is divided into 3 parts, the skull, the vertebral column, and thorax

75
Q

the appendicular skeleton

A

all other bones

76
Q

what holds the skeleton all together ?

A

joints, cartilage and ligaments

77
Q

function of the bones:

A 
bones give body shape and form:
protection
support
storage
hematopoiesis- blood cell formation inside the red bone marrow 
movement
78
Q

2 types of bone:

A

compact bone

spongy bone

79
Q

compact bone

A

is hard and dense, looks smooth and uniform. this type of bone makes up the main shaft of a long bone and the outer layer of other bones

80
Q

spongy bone

A

is composed of small needlelike pieces of bone, filled with red marrow, and lots of open space. spongy bone is found at the ends of a long bone and the centre of all other bones

81
Q

4 types of bones:

A

long bones
short bones
flat bones
irregular bones

82
Q

example of a long bone

A

femur

83
Q

example of a short bone

A

kneecap

84
Q

example of a flat bone

A

sternum

85
Q

example of an irregular bone

A

hip bone or vertebrae

86
Q

the general structure of bone consists of:

A
  • periosteum outer layer
  • articular cartilage at the ends
  • yellow or red marrow in the centre depending on age
87
Q

periosteum

A

outer layer of the bone- a fibrous connective tissue membrane

88
Q

articular

A

cartilage at the ends- a glassy hyaline cartilage, that provides a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joints surfaces

89
Q

the general anatomy of bone:

A

mature bone cells called OSTEOCYTES. these are found within the LACUNAE, tiny cavities within the bone matrix. the lacunae are arranged in circles called LAMELLAE. the centre of each circle is called the CENTRAL (HAVERSIAN) CANALS. These canals carry blood vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone.

90
Q

the skeleton is formed from 2 of the strongest and most supportive tissues in the body:

A

cartilage and bone

91
Q

ossification :

A

bone formation and growth. it involves 2 major phases. first hyaline cartilage becomes covered with a bone matrix. This is done by bone-forming cells called OSTEOBLASTS. shortly after birth most of the hyaline cartilage has been covered in bone.

92
Q

osteoblast

A

bone forming cells

93
Q

there are 2 factors that continually cause bone to remodel:

A

calcium levels in the blood and the stress of gravity and muscle pull on the skeleton.

this requires both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

94
Q

osteoclasts

A

bone destroying cells

95
Q

PTH hormone (parathyroid hormone ):

A

determines WHEN bone is to be broken down or formed in response to calcium ions in the blood. The stress of gravity and muscle pull determines WHERE bone is broken down or formed in order for the skeleton to remain strong and supportive

96
Q

the repair of bone fractures involves 4 major events:

A
  1. a hematoma
  2. fibrocartilage callus formation
  3. a bony callus
  4. bone remodeling
97
Q

a hematoma:

A

a blood-filled swelling forms after a fracture and prevents the bone cells from receiving any nutrients. The bone cells eventually die.

98
Q

fibrocartilage callus formation:

A

this involves the growth of new capillaries into the clotted blood

99
Q

a bony callus

A

is formed as osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate and multiply. The fibrocartilage is gradually replaced by the bony callus

100
Q

bone remodeling

A

takes place in response to stress that is placed on the bone itself. bo

101
Q

bones in utero start as ________

A

cartilage

102
Q

what can cause atrophy?

A

lack of stress on the bones during development

103
Q

the skull is formed by 2 sets of bones:

A
  1. the cranium ( encloses and protects the brain)
  2. the facial bones ( hold eyes in anterior position and allow facial muscle to show our feelings through smiles and frowns
104
Q

all but one of the bones of the skull is joined together by sutures, which are interlocking, immovable joints:

A

the mandible (jawbone) is attached to the rest of the skull by a freely moveable joint.

105
Q

the cranium is composed how how many bones:

name them

A 
8
the frontal bone
parietal bones x2
temporal bones x2
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
106
Q

honeycomb air spaces in skull comprise the 4 paranasal sinuses :

A 
sphenoid
ethmoid
frontal
maxillary
these paranasal sinuses surround the nasal cavity, lighten the skull bones and amplify the sound we make as we speak
107
Q

fontanels:

A

are fibrous membranes in the skull, which allow for birth and growth of brain in infanthood. They are usually closed by age 12.

108
Q

how many bones compose the facial bones:

A

14 bones

the are all paired except the mandible, which is the only freely moving bone in the skull.

109
Q

the ____________ bone is located in the back of the throat and is the only bone in the body not directly linked to another bone. it holds the back of the tongue in place

A

the hyoid bone

110
Q

the vertebral column, the spine, is to protect the spinal cord and support the body in general the spine is made up of :

A 
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae 
5 lumbar vertebrae 
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
  • the lumbar are the strongest
  • coccyx and sacrum and moveable during childbirth
  • the vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs.
111
Q

the primary curvature ________ develops during fetal stage. the secondary curvature _______ develops during infancy

A

concave

convex

112
Q

the thoracic cage (bony thorax) has how many bones :

A

12

113
Q

the ribs are divided in how many true and false ribs:

A

7 pairs of true- meaning they are connected directly to the sternum by costal cartilage
5 pairs that are false- meaning they are either indirectly connected to the sternum or not al all.
-the last 2 pairs of false ribs that are not connected to the sternum are called floating ribs

114
Q

the sternum is formed by the fusion of 3 bones:

A

manubrium, body, and xiphoid process

115
Q

the appendicular skeleton has how many bones:

A

126
includes the upper and lower limbs, the pectoral and pelvic girdles. the 2 girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

116
Q

the pectoral girdle ( shoulder girdle) consists of 2 bones:

A

the scapulae- shoulder blades

clavicle- collarbone

117
Q

the pelvic girdles is formed by:

A

2 coxal bones, or hip bones. together with the sacrum and coccyx from the axial skeleton they make up the bony pelvis.

118
Q

the hip bone is formed by the fusion of 3 bones :

A

the illium,
ischium
pubis

119
Q

the lower limbs consist of:

A

the thigh
leg
foot
- they carry our body weight while we are standing: therefore these bones are much thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs

120
Q

the thigh consists of only one bone called_________

A

the femur.

the heaviest and strongest bone in the body and can determine the full height of a person.

121
Q

the leg consists of ____ bones

A

2 bones

the tibia and fibula

122
Q

joints have 2 functions:

A
  1. they hold bones together
    2.they give the skeleton mobility
    (functionally and structurally)th
123
Q

the functional classification is determined by:

A

the amount of movement.

124
Q

the structural classification is determined by:

A

what separated the bony structure from the joint

125
Q

all synovial joints have 4 characteristics:

A
  1. articular cartilage- covers the ends of the bones, forming the joint
  2. fibrous articular capsule- lined with a smooth synovial membrane
  3. joint cavity- contains lubricating synovial fluid
  4. reinforcing ligaments
126
Q

synovial fluid is found inside joints its ________ water and a pH of ____

A

95%
7.4
it contains phagocytic cells to remove debris from injured and infected joint cavities

127
Q

nutrients for the bones:

A

vit D, calcium, magnesium and manganese

glucosamine sulfate is effective in relieving symptoms of osteoarthritis

128
Q

`their are _______ phalanges in the hands

A

14

129
Q

3 abdominal curvature

A

kyphotic (hunch back)
lordotic (sway back)
scoliosis

130
Q

the skull has how many main parts

A

2

131
Q

in total the vertebral column has how many vertebrae

A

33

132
Q

why would someone receive a sternum puncture?

A

closest bone to the skin and least amount of fat and so it also filled with bone marrow. testing for blood diseases you may need a marrow sample.

133
Q

the tip of the sternum is called the

A

xyphoid process

134
Q

kyphotic

A

the curve of the spine or concave to the spine

135
Q

lordotic

A

curve or convex to the back in the spine

136
Q

bone diseases :

A

bacterial
osteoarthritis
rheumatoid arthritis
gout

137
Q

the wrists have _____ and the ankles have ______

A

a group of small bones called:
carpals
tarsals

138
Q

the palm of the hand has ___________ or the sole of the foot we have _________

A

metacarpals

metatarsals

139
Q

the pectoral girdle is made up of:

A

the clavicle

the scapula x2

140
Q

differences between the male and female pelvic girdle:

A

females are wider for birthing purposes. wider inlet and wider outlet and more shallow/shorter. where a mans pelvis will be narrow and a bit longer.

141
Q

skin appendages:

A

cutaneous glands
hair
hair follicles
nails

142
Q

homeostatic imbalance in the integumentary system:

A

burns
infections
allergy
hormonal disturbance

143
Q

understanding tissue

A

INJURY -> INFLAMMATION AND IMMUNE RESPONSE -> TISSUE REPAIR

  • epithelia tissue is easily generated with nourishment, scarring if not nourished, and depending on severity
  • connective tissue is regenerated where blood supply is adequate, scarring if not nourished, and depending on severity
  • muscle tissue, regeneration in skeletal muscle is poor, cardiac tissue mostly replaced by scar tissue
  • nervous tissue, regeneration is poor to none, mostly replaced by scar tissue
144
Q

Inflammation

A

when the body detects and injury, the blood vessels start allowing more fluid(clotting proteins) to leak out to bring cells to the area of repair. thats why we see swelling of the area and redness. underneath a scab you have granulation(scar tissue) tissue which is the building block for new tissue to come in, made of collagen

145
Q

hypotonic

A

below normal tone or tension

146
Q

hypertonic

A

excessive or above normal tone or tension

147
Q

isotonic

A

having a uniform tension of the same tone

148
Q

the muscular system:

A

provides for movement of the body and its parts, maintains posture. generates heat, and stabilizes joints.

149
Q

3 major types of muscle tissue:

A

skeletal
smooth
cardiac

-they differ from each other by cell structure, body location and how each is triggered to contract

150
Q

skeletal muscle

A

make up 40-50% of body weight. are attached to bone and skin are sometimes referred to as striated muscle bc the fibers appear to be striped. contraction are rapid, forceful , and voluntary, however, skeletal muscles tire easily and must be rested

151
Q

smooth muscles

A

non-striated, they are mostly found in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the digestive tract. contractions are strong but slow and involuntary

152
Q

cardiac muscle

A

found only in the hear. the network of cardiac muscle makes up the bulk of the heart and is strong yet elastic. the network is strong and efficient so the whole unit can expand and contract in rhythm. contractions are involuntary

153
Q

4 important functions of muscle movement

A 
movement
posture
heat production 
joint stability
shivering
154
Q

fascicles

A

individual muscle fibers arranged in bundles

155
Q

each skeletal muscle fibre contains many filaments, made up of 2 kinds of protein called:

A

actin and myosin
-in movement the filaments attach to the actin filaments by means of cross-bridges btw the 2 types of filaments. using the energy ATP for repeated movements, the cross bridges pull all of the actin strands closer together. as the overlapping filaments slide together, the muscle fibre contacts, becoming shorter and thicker

156
Q

what mineral is needed for movement of muscles

A

calcium is present in sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle cells. cal moves to the cytoplasm during the stimulation to contract muscles. energy comes from ATP molecules

157
Q

rigor mortis

A

happens when there is no ATP release. the actin and myosin stay permanently attached, producing stiffness

158
Q

4 types of muscle contractions:

A

twitch- multiple contractions of muscles by a single stimulus
tetanic- multiple contractions in rapid succession due to a series of stimuli
isotonic- produces movement of a joint
isometric- no movement, but increase in tension or strength of muscles

159
Q

all muscles are attached to bones at 2 points:

A

THE ORIGIN is the immovable attachment; THE INSERTION is the movable bony attachment

160
Q

tendons

A

attach muscle to bone and are dense fibrous connective tissue

161
Q

voluntary muscle control

A

under conscious control of the nervous system . part of the somatic nervous system.

162
Q

involuntary muscle control

A
  • unconscious . it is part of the autonomic nervous system
163
Q

an ________ is required to simulate a muscle contraction

A

action potential

these are spread rapidly along the sarcolemma

164
Q

all or none law of muscular contraction:

A

threshold stimulus

165
Q

_________ heads attach to binding sites and “walk” across the actin filaments

A

myosin

-requires calcium from SR, released by action potential

166
Q

how is the skeletal muscle different from the cardia and smooth:

A

“multi nucleate”

voluntary control

167
Q

as muscle contracts, bonds of _________ molecules are broken (hydrolyzed) to release energy needed

A

ATP, ATP must be constantly regenerated

168
Q

3 ways ATP can be regenerated

A
  1. direct phosphorylation of ATP by creatine phosphate. creatine is exhausted quickly and easily
  2. aerobic respiration (needs oxygen)- more ATP more energy and longer sustained ie endurance training (low to moderate) use glucose for energy
  3. anaerobic respiration (does not need oxygen) -less ATP and shorter bursts of energy ie. power, short bursts, above and beyond what you can supply what you can supply oxygen for. use glucose for energy
169
Q

aerobic/endurance

A

increased blood supply and mm. cells have more mitochondria and store more oxygen

170
Q

resistance

A

contract mm. with as much force as possible to enlarged cells and connective tissue (hypertrophy)

Anatomy and Physiology (22 decks)

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