A & P MIDTERM Flashcards
steps of cardiac action potential
depolarization: Na+ channels open, Na+ rushes in
plateau: Ca2+ channels open, Ca2+ slowly enters (K+ leaves also)
repolarization: K+ channels open, K+ flows out of cell
what vein brings blood back to the heart?
superior & inferior vena cava
blood pathway
-right atrium -> [tricuspid valve] -> right ventricle -> [pulmonary/ semilunar valve] -> lungs
-left atrium -> [bicuspid/ mitral] -> left ventricle -> aorta -> [aortic semilunar valve] -> systemic circulation
AV valves - tethered to heart strings by…
CHORDAE TENDINAE
AV VALVES
move blood from atria to ventricles
-tricuspid
-bicuspid
SV VALVES
move blood from ventricles to pulmonary circulations
-aortic
-pulmonary
fossa ovalis
goes from right atrium to left atrium = BYPASS (& ductus arterioles)
papillary muscles
attaches to chordae tendinae
pectinate muscles
in wall of right atrium
trabeculae carnae
in ventricles
-form ridges & convey electricity
coronary arteries (left & right)
LEFT: anterior interventricular branch, circumflex branch
RIGHT: posterior interventricular branch, marginal branch
first branch off aorta
coronary sinus
autonomic regulation - what it means for fibers to be auto rhythmic
“self excitable”
generate action potentials on their own & trigger cardiac muscle contractions
-SA node -> AV node -> AV bundle of HIS -> left & right bundle branches -> Purkinje fibers
P WAVE
atrial depolarization (contraction)
QRS COMPLEX
depolarization of ventricles (contract) , atrial repolarization (relax)
T WAVE
repolarization of ventricles (relax)
S1 & S2 heart sounds
S1: closing of AV valves
S2: closing of SV valves
Boyle’s Law
pressure & volume = inversely proportional
pressure goes up, volume goes down
Dalton’s Law
gases behave independently from one another
(gas in mixture of gases has it own pressure)
Henry’s Law
partial pressures of gases in fluids (liquids)
Rule #1
substances flow from high concentration to low concentration (pressure)
when diaphragm & external intercostals contract during inhalation
volume in cavity increases
pressure decreases
trachea - C-shaped rings
hyaline cartilage
path of air
nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchioles -> terminal bronchioles
where do terminal bronchioles lead?
respiratory bronchioles
upper vs. lower respiratory tract
UPPER: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
LOWER: larynx, trachea, primary bronchi, segmental bronchi ….
EPIGLOTTIS (open vs. close)
open: during breathing
closed: during eating/ swallowing
where are vocal cords?
inside voice box (larynx)
hight pitch (vocal cords)
more tension on vocal cords
quiet inhalation (muscles)
diaphragm & external intercostals contract
quiet exhalation (muscles)
diaphragm & external intercostals relax
forced inhalation (muscles)
SCM, scalenes, pec minor contract
forced exhalation (muscles)
abdominal & internal intercostals contract
baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, proprioceptors
baroreceptors & chemoreceptors = in aorta & coronary artery
proprioceptors = everwhere
TYPE I alveolar cells
main site of gas exchange
TYPE II alveolar cells
secrete surfactant
SURFACTANT
reduce surface tension
internal vs. external respiration
INTERNAL: in lungs & everywhere else
EXTERNAL: in alveoli
conducting vs. respiratory zone
CONDUCTING: no gas exchange occurs here
RESPIRATORY: gas exchange occurs here (starts at respiratory bronchioles)
how oxygen is transported in blood
hemoglobin (98.5%)
-binds 4 iron & 4 oxygen molecules
how carbon dioxide is carried in blood
bicarbonate
factors that encourage hemoglobin to let go of oxygen molecules
-oxygen partial pressure
-Acidity / pH
Carbon dioxide partial pressures
Temperature
BGP: 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate
normal quiet breathing
EUPNIA
costal breathing
deep, laboured breathing
CISTERNA OF CHYLI
origin of left (thoracic) duct
drain to lumber & lower extremeties
left duct vs. right duct
RIGHT: drains right upper body & head
LEFT: drains rest of body
LYMPH NODES (T-cell sandwich)
CORTEX:
-outer: B cells in lymphatic nodules
-inner: T cell
MEDULLA: B cells, plasma cells, macrophages
flow of lymph through a lymph node
Afferent vessel → subcasular sinus → trabeculae sinus → medullary sinus → efferent vessel → (out through hilum)
MALT
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (in GI tract, urinary tract)
PEYER’S PATCHES
large cluster of lymphatic nodule (type of malt)
-in small intestine
LACTEALS
specialized lymphatic capillaries around small intestine
-absorbe CHYLE
innate immunity
present at birth
-first line of defense: skin, mucosa, hairs, fluids
-second line of defense: fever, inflammation, NK cells, phagocytes
adaptive immunity
acquired over a lifetime
-cell mediated: T cells, T helper, cytotoxic T cells
-antibody mediated: B cells, plasma cells
NK cells & phagocytes
innate immunity
second line of defense
B cells
adaptive immunity
antibody mediated
active = plasma cells
cell mediated
-T cells
-T helper cells
-Cytotoxic T cells
antigen presenting cells
-dendritic cells
-macrophages
-B cells
which type of cells have MHC I
T cells
which cells have MHC II
antigen presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic, B cells)
which MHC molecule interacts with T helper cell
MHC II
MHC with cytotoxic cells
MHC I
do adults have a thymus?
NO
only active in fetus
how do cytotoxic cells & NK cells kill?
perforins
granzymes
granulyzin
3 things that activate compliment system
antibodies bind antigens, lipids & carbs on microbes, macrophages release lectins
3 things that result from compliment system
increase phagocytosis, histamine is released, formation of membrane attack complex
antibody that arrives first
IgM
antibody - breast milk
IgA
antibody - allergies
IgE
antibody - most abundant & crosses placenta
IgG
antibody - activates B cells
IgD
antibody - mast cells & basophils
IgE
B & T cells born
red bone marrow
where is the most red bone marrow found?
flat bones (hip, epiphysis of long bone)
where T cells mature
THYMUS
SPLEEN - red pulp vs. white pulp
RED: where RBC’s go to die - fetus, platelet production
WHITE: carry out immune function
order of phagocytosis
- chemotaxis
- adherence
- ingestion
- digestion
- death
where are your kidneys?
retroperitoneal space
innate immunity (primary vs. secondary)
PRIMARY: fatty acids, skin, hair, fluids, lysosomes
SECONDARY: fever, inflammation (PRISH) (VET), macrophages
what cells get to sight of infection first?
neutrophils
EPITOPE
part of antibody that is recognized by antigen
AGGULATION - proteins responsible?
antibodies (clumping / binding)
CYTOKINE
-Interferons
-Interleukins
-Erythropoietin
-Tumor necrosis factor
what happens at afferent arteriole when hydrogen ions are put from blood to filtrate
-increase pH filtrate
-decrease pH of blood
VACCINES
responsible for artificial immunity
DIURETICS
caffeine
alcohol
cells in juxtaglomerular apparatus
-Macula Densa cells – specialized cells in ascending loop of Henle
-Juxtaglomerular cells – modified smooth muscle fibers, specialized cells in walls of afferent arteriole
5 tonsils
-pharyngeal (adenoid)
-2 palatine
-2 lingual
functions of urinary system
-excretion of wastes
-regulation of blood ions, pH, BV, PB, blood glucose
-maintenance of blood osmolarity
-production of hormones
HILUM
renal pelvis, calyces, renal blood vessels & nerves
path of urine drainage through kidney
nephron -> collecting duct -> papillary duct -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureters -> urinary bladder -> urethra
glomerular filtration: 3 layers
-fenestrations
-basement membrane
-podocytes with pedicles
how much urine can be held in the bladder?
700-800 ml (1-2L excreted a day)
filtration pressure
-glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (promote filtration = +)
-capsular hydrostatic & blood colloid osmotic pressure (oppose filtration = -)
what do you pump in the ascending limb?
Na+ / SALT
what is secreted at the DCT?
K+ by leakage
H+ by pumps
DYSURIA
painful urination
ENURESIS
involuntary voiding
NOCTURNAL ENURESIS
night time bed wetting
UREMIA
toxic levels of urea in bloodstream
POLYURIA
excessive urination
detrusor layers
-inner longitudinal: relaxed when peeing
-middle circular: involuntary
-outer longitudinal: voluntary
blood supply to kidneys form abdominal aorta
renal artery off abdominal aorta -> segmental arteries -> interlobar -> arcuate -> cortical radiate -> afferent arterioles -> glomerular capillaries -> efferent arterioles
2 types of nephrons (which dip further into medulla)
-juxtamedullary nephron: LONG loop of Henle
-cortical nephron: SHORT loop of Henle
type of cells in the juxtaglomerular apparatus
-macula densa cells: specialized cells in ascending limb
-juxtaglomerular cells: modified smooth muscle fibers specialized in walls of afferent arteriole -> secrete renin
podocyte with pedicle
foot like processes that form filtration slits - allows smaller proteins, water, vitamins
mechanisms that allow kidneys to autoregulate
-myogenic mechanism
-macula densa feedback
-neuroregulation
-hormonal regulation
-homeostatic regulation
angiotensin II
decrease GFR
increase BV/BP
ANP
increase GFR
decrease BV/BP
ADH
increase BV/BP, decrease urine output (aquaporins)
aldosterone
increase water reabsorption & water volume
increase BP
different roots of transport between cells
-paracellular: move substances between leaky cells
-transcellular: move substances between individual tubule cell
how much water is reabsorbed & where
PCT - 65%
Descending loop - 15%
DCT - 20%
what is secreted & absorbed at the PCT
ABSORBED: water, Na, glucose, Cl, AA, bicarbonate, Mg, Ca
EXCRETED: H+, urea, creatinine, ammonium
where is urea recycled?
collecting duct
filtrate passing through a nephron in order
NEPHRON -> PCT, Descending limb -> ascending limb -> DCT -> collecting duct
layers of ureter (internal to external)
-mucosa
-lamina propria
-muscularis
-adventitia
