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A & P II > A & P - FINAL EXAM > Flashcards

A & P - FINAL EXAM Flashcards

1
Q

layers of the heart

A

epicardium: external
myocardium: middle (95% of wall)
endocardium: inner

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2
Q

valves of the heart

A

AV: tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral)
SV: aortic, pulmonary

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3
Q

tricuspid valve

A

chordae tendinae
controls opening & closing of valves

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4
Q

bicuspid valve

A

receives blood from lungs via pulmonary veins & delivers to left ventricle

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5
Q

pathway of blood through the heart

A

aortic valve -> aortic arch -> coronary arteries -> descending aorta -> rest of body

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6
Q

AV valves

A

tricuspid: right atrium -> right ventricle
bicuspid: left atrium -> left ventricle

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7
Q

SV valves

A

aortic: right ventricle -> aorta & systemic circulation
pulmonary: left ventricle -> pulmonary trunk & pulmonary circulation

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8
Q

pulmonary circulation - how blood is going from heart to lungs & back

A

right ventricle -> pulmonary valve -> pulmonary trunk -> lungs

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9
Q

arteries / branches of the heart (LAC RPM)

A

LEFT coronary artery: anterior interventricular, circumflex
RIGHT coronary artery: posterior interventricular, marginal

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10
Q

veins of the heart - what do they drain & where

A

Great cardiac vein – drains ventricles & left atrium
Middle cardiac vein – drains ventricles
Small cardiac vein – drains right atrium & right ventricle
Anterior cardiac vein – right ventricle & right atrium
*ALL drain into CORONARY SINUS

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11
Q

first branch off aorta

A

CORONARY ARTERIES

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12
Q

conduction system of heart – where electricity starts & where it goes

A

SA node → AV node → AV bundle of HIS → right & left bundle branches → Purkinje Fibers

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13
Q

pectinate muscles (muscles in the heart)

A

in wall of right atirum
form ridges that extend into auricle
(auricle = slightly increases capacity of atria)

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14
Q

trabeculae carneae (muscles in the heart)

A

muscles that form ridges & convey electricity

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15
Q

chordae tendineae (muscles in the heart)

A

tendons attached to cusps of tricuspid valve
control opening / closing

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16
Q

papillary muscles (muscles in the heart)

A

type of trabeculae carneae – attached to chordae tendineae

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17
Q

structures in conducting zone

A

CONDUCTING ZONE: no gas exchange
Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

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18
Q

structures in respiratory zone

A

RESPIRATORY ZONE: gas exchange occurs
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

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19
Q

muscles involved in quiet inhalation

A

diaphragm & external intercostals contract

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20
Q

muscles involved in forced inhalation

A

SCM, scalenes, pec minor contract

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21
Q

muscles involved in quiet exhalation

A

diaphragm & external intercostals relax

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22
Q

muscles involved in forced exhalation

A

abdominal & internal intercostals contract

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23
Q

flaps open vs. closed when eating, breathing/ swallowing

A

EPIGLOTTIS:
OPEN – during breathing
CLOSED – during eating / swallowing

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24
Q

Types of cells that line alveoli & their function

A

Type I alveolar cells: main site of gas exchange
Type II alveolar cells: secrete surfactant
Alveolar Macrophages: dust cells – phagocytes remove dust & debris

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25
Q

surfactant function

A

REDUCE surface tension
Reduce friction

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26
Q

Diaphragm – inhaling – contracting & relaxing

A

diaphragm & external intercostals contract during INHALATION volume of thoracic cavity & pleural cavity INCREASES (Boyle’s Law)
pressure DECREASES

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27
Q

RULE #1

A

substances always flow from regions of high pressure to low pressure to balance out

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28
Q

BOYLE’S LAW

A

=inversely proportional
Volume up: pressure down
Pressure down: volume up

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29
Q

DALTON’S LAW

A

Mixture of gasses together (air)
Gas has its own pressure
=independant

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30
Q

HENRY’S LAW

A

Gasses in a solution (liquids like blood / plasma)

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31
Q

How our body absorbs fat & what specialized structures exist for it

A

Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries
Take up dietary lipids too large to cross membrane
“Chyle” → acts as a BYPASS to get extra large molecules into bloodstream

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32
Q

lymph flow through a lymph node

A

Afferent vessel
Subcapsular sinus
Trabeculae sinus
Medullary sinus
Out of HILUM via efferent vessel

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33
Q

order of lymphatic flow

A

Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic vessels
Regional lymph nodes
Lymphatic trunks
Lymphatic ducts

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34
Q

Tonsils – where are they & what they do – how many do you have

A

Large cluster of lymphatic nodules (tonsils / patches)
Peyer’s patches are in small intestine
We have 5 tonsils:
1 Pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil: posterior nasopharynx
2 Palatine tonsils: posterior oral cavity (*most commonly removed)
2 Lingual tonsils: at base of tongue

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35
Q

which tonsil is most commonly removed?

A

Palatine tonsils

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36
Q

Which lymphatic duct drains which region of the body

A

RIGHT lymphatic duct: drains right upper body & head
LEFT (thoracic) duct: drains rest of body

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37
Q

Cisterna of Chyli

A

Origin of LEFT thoracic duct
Collects lymph from lumbar & intestinal trunks

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38
Q

MALT

A

mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue

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39
Q

CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY

A

inside cell
T cells (cytotoxic T cells) attacking cells
Effective against: intracellular pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi), cancer cells
Memory T cells also produced
Memory helper cells
Helper T cells
Cytotoxic T cells (granzymes, perforins, granulysin)
Last line of defense
Fight microbes

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40
Q

ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY

A

in body fluids (blood & lymph) outside cell
B cells – transform into plasma cells that produce antibodies / immunoglobulins
Effective against: extracellular pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi)
Memory B cells also produced
Plasma cells
B cells
Fight things outside cell

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41
Q

How do cytotoxic T cells kill things?

A

GRANZYMES: trigger apoptosis
PERFORINS: form channels / holes – cytolysis
GRANULYSIN: perforin channels – poke holes in antigen plasma membrane

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42
Q

plasma cells

A

B cells (antibody mediated) → produce PLASMA cells
make ANTIBODIES

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43
Q

what is MHC?

A

Major histocompatibility complex
Markers / flags on plasma membrane
Self recognition – “i am me”
Identify each cell in body whether it belongs or not

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44
Q

MHC I

A

Built into plasma membranes of all cells (EXCEPT RBCs)
Let cytotoxic T cells know that it has been invaded (inside cell)

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45
Q

MHC II

A

Built into antigen presenting cell (outside cell)

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46
Q

steps of phagocytosis (CAIDD)

A

Chemotaxis
Adherence
Ingestion
Digestion
Death

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47
Q

IgG

A

most abundant (80%), crosses placenta, long term immunity

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48
Q

IgA

A

found in breast milk, sweat & tears, saliva, mucus, GI secretions

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49
Q

IgM

A

found in blood & lymph, appears 1st, short lived, activates complement system

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50
Q

IgD

A

Activates B cells

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51
Q

IgE

A

found on mast cells & basophils, involved in allergic & hypersensitivity reactions, protect against parasitic worms

52
Q

where T cells & B cells are born & mature

A

B CELLS: born & mature in RED BONE MARROW
T CELLS: born in red bone marrow, mature in THYMUS

53
Q

Signs & Symptoms of Inflammation – PRISH

A

Pain
Redness
Immobility
Swelling
Heat

54
Q

Signs & Symptoms of Inflammation - VET

A

Vasodilation & increased permeability
Emigration of phagocytes
Tissue repair

55
Q

RED PULP of spleen

A

blood filled venous sinuses full of RBCs, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, granulocytes
DEATH of blood cells occurs here – especially RBCs, macrophages, phagocytes & debris
Storage of platelets
Blood cells produced here only during fetal life

56
Q

WHITE PULP of spleen

A

lymphatic tissue with lymphocytes (B & T cells)
Carry out immune functions & macrophages that destroy pathogens with phagocytosis

57
Q

RAAS Pathway – starts & ends, organs involved, cells that secrete renin (juxtaglomerular)

A

STARTS: if blood volume/ pressure decreases
Walls of afferent arteriole stretched
Juxtaglomerular cells secrete RENIN (from KIDNEYS)
Renin → angiotensinogen from LIVER
Angiotensinogen → angiotensin I (with help from LUNGS)
Angiotensin I → angiotensin II

ORGANS = liver, kidneys, lungs

58
Q

Podocytes with Pedicles

A

Foot like processes that form filtration slits
Allows smaller proteins, water, vitamins

59
Q

Filter at Glomerulus – what makes it a good filter

A

PROMOTE filtration: pushing solutes out of blood into Bowman’s Capsule = GLOMERULAR BLOOD HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

60
Q

3 things encourage filtration in glomerulus

A

blood filtered because it is UNDER PRESSURE
Capillaries have LARGE SURFACE AREA
Filtration membrane is THIN & POROUS (50x leakier)

61
Q

Juxtaglomerular apparatus – cell types its made of & what they do

A

Macula Densa Cells – specialized cells in ascending limb of Henle
Juxtaglomerular Cells – modified smooth muscle fibers that are specialized cells in walls of afferent arteriole

62
Q

NEPHRON - order

A

Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus (bowman’s Capsule) → drains into PCT → descending loop of Henle → ascending loop of Henle → DCT → ducts → papilla → calyx

63
Q

NEPHRON - how much water is reabsorbed & where

A

PCT – 65%
Descending loop – 15%
DCT – 20%
65% most reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule
PCT = most salty area of nephron

64
Q

What is secreted & absorbed at the PCT?

A

ABSORBED:
Water, sodium, glucose, chlorine, AA, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium
EXCRETED:
Hydrogen, urea, creatinine, ammonium

65
Q

ANP

A

Decrease blood volume & pressure, increase GFR

66
Q

ADH

A

Increase blood volumes / blood pressure, decrease urine output
(aquaporins)

67
Q

aldosterone

A

Increase water reabsorption & water volume – also blood pressure

68
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

Stimulate cells in DCT to reabsorb more Ca2+ into bloodstream

69
Q

what hormone increases & decreases GFR, BP, BV

A

Angiotensin II: vasoconstriction – decrease GFR , increase BP
ANP: increase GFR – decrease BV/BP

70
Q

GI TRACT – folds

A

omentum (greater & lesser), mesocolon, mesentery

71
Q

greater & lesser omentum - where do they attach

A

Greater omentum: attached to transverse colon (greater curvature)
Lesser omentum: attached to stomach, “J” (lesser curvature)

72
Q

FALCIFORM ligament

A

right & left liver are separated by falciform ligament
Attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall & to diaphragm
Only organ attached to wall → really heavy!

73
Q

GALLBLADDER – what it makes

A

makes BILE produced in liver
-micelle
-chylomicron
-ligaments

74
Q

micelle

A

fat around bile

75
Q

chylomicron

A

transportable form of fat

76
Q

Brush border enzymes in brush border cells & what they do

A

Enzymes found in plasma membranes of microvilli:
Carbohydrate digesting enzymes: alpha dextrinase, maltese, sucrase, lactase
Protein digesting enzymes (peptidase): aminopeptidase, dipeptidase
Nucleotide digesting enzymes: nucleosidase, phosphates

77
Q

MYENTERIC PLEXUS (brain of the gut)

A

between circular & longitudinal smooth muscle layers of muscularis – controls muscles & GI tract mobility

78
Q

SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS

A

in submucosa – controls secretory cells

79
Q

fat emulsification (lipids)

A

LIPIDS: must be emulsified first with bile – then digested into simplest form of triglycerides → fatty acid & glycerol

80
Q

Proteins in GI tract, all enzymes & what they digest

A

Salivary amylase: digests carbohydrates
Lipase: fat
Trypsin: protein
Chymotrypsin: proteas
Nucleases: digests RNA & DNA

81
Q

GLYCOLYSIS (glucose metabolism)

A

break down of glucose → into pyruvate
(eating state)

82
Q

GLYCOGENOLYSIS (glucose metabolism)

A

break down of glycogen → into glucose
(fasting state)

83
Q

GLYCOGENESIS (glucose metabolism)

A

making glycogen → glucose
(eating state)

84
Q

GLUCONEOGENESIS (glucose metabolism)

A

making glucose → from fat & protein
(fasting state)

85
Q

what happens after you eat / between meals

A

After you eat: absorptive state – using/ burning glucose, make ATP
Between meals: post absorptive state – burning ATP, make glucose

86
Q

ways our body can lose heat

A

Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Evaporation

87
Q

steps in cellular respiration – what order they happen in & where they happen

A
  1. Glycolysis – in CYTOSOL
  2. Formation of acetyl coenzyme A – in MITOCHONDRIA
  3. Krebs cycle – in MITOCHONDRIA
  4. Electron transport chain – in MITOCHONDRIA
88
Q

ESSENTIAL A.A.

A

can not be synthesized – must be present in diet
-Isoleucine
-Leucine
-Lysine
-Methionine (cysteine)
-Phenylalanine
-Threonine
-Tryptophan
-Valine
-Histidine

89
Q

NON-ESSENTIAL A.A.

A

can be synthesized – by body cells
-Alanine
-Aspartic acid
-Asparagine
-Glutamic acid
-Serine

90
Q

ESSENTIAL fatty acids

A

-Linoleic (omega 6): from vegetable oil, sunflower oil, corn oil
-Alpha-linolenic (omega 3): from flaxseed, hemp hearts, wild salmon, other fish

91
Q

where do you store fat?

A

Stored in adipose tissue throughout body
50% stored in SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER

92
Q

water soluble vitamins

A

B, C

93
Q

fat soluble vitamins

A

K, A, D, E

94
Q

vitamin D - function & deficiency

A

Function: regulates calcium, magnesium, phosphate
Deficiency: Ricket’s (children), osteomalacia (adults)

95
Q

vitamin K - function & deficiency

A

Function: necessary in blood clotting
Main source = produced by gut bacteria

96
Q

vitamin B1 - function & deficiency

A

Function: carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency: beri beri

97
Q

vitamin B3 - function & deficiency

A

Function: carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency: Pellagra (disease)

98
Q

vitamin B9 - function & deficiency

A

Function: make new cells
Deficiency: neural tube defects → spina bifida

99
Q

vitamin B12 - function & deficiency

A

Needs vitamin B9 to activate it
Needed to make HEME
Deficiency: anemia

100
Q

Ca2+ - function & deficiency

A

Function: bone mineralization
Deficiency: Ricket’s (kids), osteomalacia & osteoporosis (adults)
Osteoclasts: active when Ca2+ is low (break down bone)
Osteoblasts: active when Ca2+ is high (build up bone)

101
Q

Magnesium (Mg)

A

muscle relaxation

102
Q

Sodium (Na+) – functions

A

Extracellular fluid control
Water balance
Acid-base balance
Muscle contraction
Nerve impulse

103
Q

AUTOCRINE hormones

A

bind to SAME cell

104
Q

PARACRINE hormones

A

secreted into interstitial fluid – act on NEIGHBORING cells

105
Q

ENDOCRINE hormones

A

secreted into interstitial fluid – absorbed into BLOODSTREAM to be carried away

106
Q

SOMATOTROPHS

A

secrete HGH – stimulates tissues to secrete insulin-like growth factors

107
Q

Thyrotrophs (thyrotropins)

A

secretes thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

108
Q

Gonadotrophs (gonadotropins)

A

secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and secretes luteinizing hormone (LH)

109
Q

Lactotrophs (lactotropins)

A

secretes prolactin (PRL)

110
Q

Corticotrophs (corticotropins)

A

secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and secretes melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

111
Q

When calcitonin secretion of the thyroid gland increases…

A

Osteoclast activity decreases so blood calcium levels decrease

112
Q

When parathyroid hormone levels increase…

A

Osteoclast activity increases, so blood calcium level increases

113
Q

Low levels of blood calcium would directly result in…

A

Increase PTH, decreased Calcitonin

114
Q

Hormones are stored & released in the posterior pituitary

A

ADH, Oxytocin

115
Q

ANTERIOR pituitary - five releasing stimulating hormones

A

GHRH
TRH
CRH
PRH
GnRH

116
Q

ANTERIOR pituitary - two releasing inhibiting hormones

A

GHIH
PIH

117
Q

What hormones the hypothalamus produce & what they do

A

(GHRH): promotes secretion of growth hormone
(GHIH): suppresses secretion of growth hormone and is secreted into the hypophyseal portal system and into the anterior pituitary where it prevents the release of growth hormone (GH)

118
Q

How do you make a thyroid hormone

A

(T3, T4)
IODINE & TYROSINE

119
Q

AMPULLA of fallopian tube

A

where sperm meets egg
(fertilization)

120
Q

Graffion Follicle

A

mature follicle that releases an egg

121
Q

layers of uterus – outside to inside

A

Perimetrium → myometrium → endometrium

122
Q

ENDOMETRIUM

A

stratum functionalis – sloughs off = menses
Stratum basalis: layer that remains / gives rise to new stratum functionalis

123
Q

Estrogen in LOW concentrations

A

= negative feedback on LH & FSH

124
Q

Estrogen in HIGH concentrations

A

= positive feedback on LH & FSH

125
Q

GnRH (reproductive)

A

LH – Leydig → make testosterone
FSH – seminiferous tubules → make sperm

A & P II (9 decks)

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