A & P - FINAL EXAM Flashcards
layers of the heart
epicardium: external
myocardium: middle (95% of wall)
endocardium: inner
valves of the heart
AV: tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral)
SV: aortic, pulmonary
tricuspid valve
chordae tendinae
controls opening & closing of valves
bicuspid valve
receives blood from lungs via pulmonary veins & delivers to left ventricle
pathway of blood through the heart
aortic valve -> aortic arch -> coronary arteries -> descending aorta -> rest of body
AV valves
tricuspid: right atrium -> right ventricle
bicuspid: left atrium -> left ventricle
SV valves
aortic: right ventricle -> aorta & systemic circulation
pulmonary: left ventricle -> pulmonary trunk & pulmonary circulation
pulmonary circulation - how blood is going from heart to lungs & back
right ventricle -> pulmonary valve -> pulmonary trunk -> lungs
arteries / branches of the heart (LAC RPM)
LEFT coronary artery: anterior interventricular, circumflex
RIGHT coronary artery: posterior interventricular, marginal
veins of the heart - what do they drain & where
Great cardiac vein – drains ventricles & left atrium
Middle cardiac vein – drains ventricles
Small cardiac vein – drains right atrium & right ventricle
Anterior cardiac vein – right ventricle & right atrium
*ALL drain into CORONARY SINUS
first branch off aorta
CORONARY ARTERIES
conduction system of heart – where electricity starts & where it goes
SA node → AV node → AV bundle of HIS → right & left bundle branches → Purkinje Fibers
pectinate muscles (muscles in the heart)
in wall of right atirum
form ridges that extend into auricle
(auricle = slightly increases capacity of atria)
trabeculae carneae (muscles in the heart)
muscles that form ridges & convey electricity
chordae tendineae (muscles in the heart)
tendons attached to cusps of tricuspid valve
control opening / closing
papillary muscles (muscles in the heart)
type of trabeculae carneae – attached to chordae tendineae
structures in conducting zone
CONDUCTING ZONE: no gas exchange
Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
structures in respiratory zone
RESPIRATORY ZONE: gas exchange occurs
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
muscles involved in quiet inhalation
diaphragm & external intercostals contract
muscles involved in forced inhalation
SCM, scalenes, pec minor contract
muscles involved in quiet exhalation
diaphragm & external intercostals relax
muscles involved in forced exhalation
abdominal & internal intercostals contract
flaps open vs. closed when eating, breathing/ swallowing
EPIGLOTTIS:
OPEN – during breathing
CLOSED – during eating / swallowing
Types of cells that line alveoli & their function
Type I alveolar cells: main site of gas exchange
Type II alveolar cells: secrete surfactant
Alveolar Macrophages: dust cells – phagocytes remove dust & debris
surfactant function
REDUCE surface tension
Reduce friction
Diaphragm – inhaling – contracting & relaxing
diaphragm & external intercostals contract during INHALATION volume of thoracic cavity & pleural cavity INCREASES (Boyle’s Law)
pressure DECREASES
RULE #1
substances always flow from regions of high pressure to low pressure to balance out
BOYLE’S LAW
=inversely proportional
Volume up: pressure down
Pressure down: volume up
DALTON’S LAW
Mixture of gasses together (air)
Gas has its own pressure
=independant
HENRY’S LAW
Gasses in a solution (liquids like blood / plasma)
How our body absorbs fat & what specialized structures exist for it
Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries
Take up dietary lipids too large to cross membrane
“Chyle” → acts as a BYPASS to get extra large molecules into bloodstream
lymph flow through a lymph node
Afferent vessel
Subcapsular sinus
Trabeculae sinus
Medullary sinus
Out of HILUM via efferent vessel
order of lymphatic flow
Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic vessels
Regional lymph nodes
Lymphatic trunks
Lymphatic ducts
Tonsils – where are they & what they do – how many do you have
Large cluster of lymphatic nodules (tonsils / patches)
Peyer’s patches are in small intestine
We have 5 tonsils:
1 Pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil: posterior nasopharynx
2 Palatine tonsils: posterior oral cavity (*most commonly removed)
2 Lingual tonsils: at base of tongue
which tonsil is most commonly removed?
Palatine tonsils
Which lymphatic duct drains which region of the body
RIGHT lymphatic duct: drains right upper body & head
LEFT (thoracic) duct: drains rest of body
Cisterna of Chyli
Origin of LEFT thoracic duct
Collects lymph from lumbar & intestinal trunks
MALT
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY
inside cell
T cells (cytotoxic T cells) attacking cells
Effective against: intracellular pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi), cancer cells
Memory T cells also produced
Memory helper cells
Helper T cells
Cytotoxic T cells (granzymes, perforins, granulysin)
Last line of defense
Fight microbes
ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY
in body fluids (blood & lymph) outside cell
B cells – transform into plasma cells that produce antibodies / immunoglobulins
Effective against: extracellular pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi)
Memory B cells also produced
Plasma cells
B cells
Fight things outside cell
How do cytotoxic T cells kill things?
GRANZYMES: trigger apoptosis
PERFORINS: form channels / holes – cytolysis
GRANULYSIN: perforin channels – poke holes in antigen plasma membrane
plasma cells
B cells (antibody mediated) → produce PLASMA cells
make ANTIBODIES
what is MHC?
Major histocompatibility complex
Markers / flags on plasma membrane
Self recognition – “i am me”
Identify each cell in body whether it belongs or not
MHC I
Built into plasma membranes of all cells (EXCEPT RBCs)
Let cytotoxic T cells know that it has been invaded (inside cell)
MHC II
Built into antigen presenting cell (outside cell)
steps of phagocytosis (CAIDD)
Chemotaxis
Adherence
Ingestion
Digestion
Death
IgG
most abundant (80%), crosses placenta, long term immunity
IgA
found in breast milk, sweat & tears, saliva, mucus, GI secretions
IgM
found in blood & lymph, appears 1st, short lived, activates complement system
IgD
Activates B cells
IgE
found on mast cells & basophils, involved in allergic & hypersensitivity reactions, protect against parasitic worms
where T cells & B cells are born & mature
B CELLS: born & mature in RED BONE MARROW
T CELLS: born in red bone marrow, mature in THYMUS
Signs & Symptoms of Inflammation – PRISH
Pain
Redness
Immobility
Swelling
Heat
Signs & Symptoms of Inflammation - VET
Vasodilation & increased permeability
Emigration of phagocytes
Tissue repair
RED PULP of spleen
blood filled venous sinuses full of RBCs, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, granulocytes
DEATH of blood cells occurs here – especially RBCs, macrophages, phagocytes & debris
Storage of platelets
Blood cells produced here only during fetal life
WHITE PULP of spleen
lymphatic tissue with lymphocytes (B & T cells)
Carry out immune functions & macrophages that destroy pathogens with phagocytosis
RAAS Pathway – starts & ends, organs involved, cells that secrete renin (juxtaglomerular)
STARTS: if blood volume/ pressure decreases
Walls of afferent arteriole stretched
Juxtaglomerular cells secrete RENIN (from KIDNEYS)
Renin → angiotensinogen from LIVER
Angiotensinogen → angiotensin I (with help from LUNGS)
Angiotensin I → angiotensin II
ORGANS = liver, kidneys, lungs
Podocytes with Pedicles
Foot like processes that form filtration slits
Allows smaller proteins, water, vitamins
Filter at Glomerulus – what makes it a good filter
PROMOTE filtration: pushing solutes out of blood into Bowman’s Capsule = GLOMERULAR BLOOD HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
3 things encourage filtration in glomerulus
blood filtered because it is UNDER PRESSURE
Capillaries have LARGE SURFACE AREA
Filtration membrane is THIN & POROUS (50x leakier)
Juxtaglomerular apparatus – cell types its made of & what they do
Macula Densa Cells – specialized cells in ascending limb of Henle
Juxtaglomerular Cells – modified smooth muscle fibers that are specialized cells in walls of afferent arteriole
NEPHRON - order
Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus (bowman’s Capsule) → drains into PCT → descending loop of Henle → ascending loop of Henle → DCT → ducts → papilla → calyx
NEPHRON - how much water is reabsorbed & where
PCT – 65%
Descending loop – 15%
DCT – 20%
65% most reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule
PCT = most salty area of nephron
What is secreted & absorbed at the PCT?
ABSORBED:
Water, sodium, glucose, chlorine, AA, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium
EXCRETED:
Hydrogen, urea, creatinine, ammonium
ANP
Decrease blood volume & pressure, increase GFR
ADH
Increase blood volumes / blood pressure, decrease urine output
(aquaporins)
aldosterone
Increase water reabsorption & water volume – also blood pressure
parathyroid hormone
Stimulate cells in DCT to reabsorb more Ca2+ into bloodstream
what hormone increases & decreases GFR, BP, BV
Angiotensin II: vasoconstriction – decrease GFR , increase BP
ANP: increase GFR – decrease BV/BP
GI TRACT – folds
omentum (greater & lesser), mesocolon, mesentery
greater & lesser omentum - where do they attach
Greater omentum: attached to transverse colon (greater curvature)
Lesser omentum: attached to stomach, “J” (lesser curvature)
FALCIFORM ligament
right & left liver are separated by falciform ligament
Attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall & to diaphragm
Only organ attached to wall → really heavy!
GALLBLADDER – what it makes
makes BILE produced in liver
-micelle
-chylomicron
-ligaments
micelle
fat around bile
chylomicron
transportable form of fat
Brush border enzymes in brush border cells & what they do
Enzymes found in plasma membranes of microvilli:
Carbohydrate digesting enzymes: alpha dextrinase, maltese, sucrase, lactase
Protein digesting enzymes (peptidase): aminopeptidase, dipeptidase
Nucleotide digesting enzymes: nucleosidase, phosphates
MYENTERIC PLEXUS (brain of the gut)
between circular & longitudinal smooth muscle layers of muscularis – controls muscles & GI tract mobility
SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS
in submucosa – controls secretory cells
fat emulsification (lipids)
LIPIDS: must be emulsified first with bile – then digested into simplest form of triglycerides → fatty acid & glycerol
Proteins in GI tract, all enzymes & what they digest
Salivary amylase: digests carbohydrates
Lipase: fat
Trypsin: protein
Chymotrypsin: proteas
Nucleases: digests RNA & DNA
GLYCOLYSIS (glucose metabolism)
break down of glucose → into pyruvate
(eating state)
GLYCOGENOLYSIS (glucose metabolism)
break down of glycogen → into glucose
(fasting state)
GLYCOGENESIS (glucose metabolism)
making glycogen → glucose
(eating state)
GLUCONEOGENESIS (glucose metabolism)
making glucose → from fat & protein
(fasting state)
what happens after you eat / between meals
After you eat: absorptive state – using/ burning glucose, make ATP
Between meals: post absorptive state – burning ATP, make glucose
ways our body can lose heat
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Evaporation
steps in cellular respiration – what order they happen in & where they happen
- Glycolysis – in CYTOSOL
- Formation of acetyl coenzyme A – in MITOCHONDRIA
- Krebs cycle – in MITOCHONDRIA
- Electron transport chain – in MITOCHONDRIA
ESSENTIAL A.A.
can not be synthesized – must be present in diet
-Isoleucine
-Leucine
-Lysine
-Methionine (cysteine)
-Phenylalanine
-Threonine
-Tryptophan
-Valine
-Histidine
NON-ESSENTIAL A.A.
can be synthesized – by body cells
-Alanine
-Aspartic acid
-Asparagine
-Glutamic acid
-Serine
ESSENTIAL fatty acids
-Linoleic (omega 6): from vegetable oil, sunflower oil, corn oil
-Alpha-linolenic (omega 3): from flaxseed, hemp hearts, wild salmon, other fish
where do you store fat?
Stored in adipose tissue throughout body
50% stored in SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER
water soluble vitamins
B, C
fat soluble vitamins
K, A, D, E
vitamin D - function & deficiency
Function: regulates calcium, magnesium, phosphate
Deficiency: Ricket’s (children), osteomalacia (adults)
vitamin K - function & deficiency
Function: necessary in blood clotting
Main source = produced by gut bacteria
vitamin B1 - function & deficiency
Function: carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency: beri beri
vitamin B3 - function & deficiency
Function: carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency: Pellagra (disease)
vitamin B9 - function & deficiency
Function: make new cells
Deficiency: neural tube defects → spina bifida
vitamin B12 - function & deficiency
Needs vitamin B9 to activate it
Needed to make HEME
Deficiency: anemia
Ca2+ - function & deficiency
Function: bone mineralization
Deficiency: Ricket’s (kids), osteomalacia & osteoporosis (adults)
Osteoclasts: active when Ca2+ is low (break down bone)
Osteoblasts: active when Ca2+ is high (build up bone)
Magnesium (Mg)
muscle relaxation
Sodium (Na+) – functions
Extracellular fluid control
Water balance
Acid-base balance
Muscle contraction
Nerve impulse
AUTOCRINE hormones
bind to SAME cell
PARACRINE hormones
secreted into interstitial fluid – act on NEIGHBORING cells
ENDOCRINE hormones
secreted into interstitial fluid – absorbed into BLOODSTREAM to be carried away
SOMATOTROPHS
secrete HGH – stimulates tissues to secrete insulin-like growth factors
Thyrotrophs (thyrotropins)
secretes thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Gonadotrophs (gonadotropins)
secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and secretes luteinizing hormone (LH)
Lactotrophs (lactotropins)
secretes prolactin (PRL)
Corticotrophs (corticotropins)
secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and secretes melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
When calcitonin secretion of the thyroid gland increases…
Osteoclast activity decreases so blood calcium levels decrease
When parathyroid hormone levels increase…
Osteoclast activity increases, so blood calcium level increases
Low levels of blood calcium would directly result in…
Increase PTH, decreased Calcitonin
Hormones are stored & released in the posterior pituitary
ADH, Oxytocin
ANTERIOR pituitary - five releasing stimulating hormones
GHRH
TRH
CRH
PRH
GnRH
ANTERIOR pituitary - two releasing inhibiting hormones
GHIH
PIH
What hormones the hypothalamus produce & what they do
(GHRH): promotes secretion of growth hormone
(GHIH): suppresses secretion of growth hormone and is secreted into the hypophyseal portal system and into the anterior pituitary where it prevents the release of growth hormone (GH)
How do you make a thyroid hormone
(T3, T4)
IODINE & TYROSINE
AMPULLA of fallopian tube
where sperm meets egg
(fertilization)
Graffion Follicle
mature follicle that releases an egg
layers of uterus – outside to inside
Perimetrium → myometrium → endometrium
ENDOMETRIUM
stratum functionalis – sloughs off = menses
Stratum basalis: layer that remains / gives rise to new stratum functionalis
Estrogen in LOW concentrations
= negative feedback on LH & FSH
Estrogen in HIGH concentrations
= positive feedback on LH & FSH
GnRH (reproductive)
LH – Leydig → make testosterone
FSH – seminiferous tubules → make sperm
