[A] Biological approach to smoking

Question 1

[INITIATION] What can make some people more likely to try out addictive behaviour, and get more quickly hooked once they do so?

Answer 1

Biological vulnerability.

Question 2

[INITIATION] What kind of differences are there between those who are predisposed to smoking and those who aren’t?

Answer 2

Genetic differences.

Question 3

[INITIATION] Describe Vink et al’s (2005) study.

Answer 3

Vink et al (2005) studied 1572 Dutch twin pairs, and found that individual differences in smoking were explained by genetic factors in 44% of cases, and by environmental factors in 56% of cases.

Question 4

[INITIATION] What does Vink et al’s (2005) study suggest about the biological approach to smoking?

Answer 4

Genes cannot be the main factor, as smoking behaviour was influenced more by environmental factors in identical twins. Shared environments and observation of similar behaviour look to be a more suitable explanation.

Question 5

[INITIATION] Describe Difranza’s (2008) work.

Answer 5

10% of teenage smokers who went on to be addicts had strong cravings for smoking just two days after first inhaling. This 10% were 200 times more likely to become daily smokers.

Question 6

[INITIATION] What are two problems with Difranza’s (2008) study?

Answer 6

It does not explain why the participants started smoking in the first place and does not explain whether the continued smoking was due to biological or environmental influences.

Question 7

[INITIATION] Which variant of which gene causes people to have fewer dopamine receptors in the reward pathway in the brain?

Answer 7

The A1 variant of the DRD₂ gene.

Question 8

[INITIATION] What is the effect of having fewer dopamine receptors?

Answer 8

The individual needs more stimulation in order to reach a ‘normal’ level of excitement.

Question 9

[INITIATION] What did Comings et al (1996) discover when researching the presence of the A1 variant of the DRD₂ gene?

Answer 9

49% of smokers and ex-smokers carry the gene, but 25% of the general public also carry it.

Question 10

[INITIATION] The DRD₂ gene variant has also been linked to different addictions, such as gambling. What does this suggest?

Answer 10

It suggests that the gene creates a general vulnerability to addiction, rather than a specific predisposition to smoke.

Question 11

[MAINTENANCE] What increases the likelihood that nicotine addictions will be maintained over time?

Answer 11

Changes in the brain.

Question 12

[MAINTENANCE] Which neurotransmitters does nicotine affect?

Answer 12

Nicotine affects dopamine, acetylcholine, glutamate and endorphins.

Question 13

[MAINTENANCE] What does maintenance of a nicotine-induced pleasant feeling require?

Answer 13

Frequent smoking, because nicotine has a short half-life of only two hours.

Question 14

[MAINTENANCE] Describe what Nesbitt (1974) found in his study.

Answer 14

Nesbitt (1974) found that smokers can enhance the stimulant effects of nicotine by taking short, frequent puffs when smoking, and they can enhance the sedative effects of nicotine by taking long, slow puffs.

Question 15

[MAINTENANCE] What does dopamine do when released while smoking?

Answer 15

It reinforces and strengthens the individual’s motivation to smoke.

Question 16

[MAINTENANCE] What does acetylcholine do when released while smoking?

Answer 16

It enhances alertness and concentration while also improving memory.

Question 17

[MAINTENANCE] What does glutamate do when released while smoking?

Answer 17

It creates a memory loop of the pleasant feelings the nicotine created.

Question 18

[MAINTENANCE] What does endorphin do when released while smoking?

Answer 18

It produces a calming, painkilling effect.

Question 19

[MAINTENANCE] Describe Schachter et al’s (1977) study.

Answer 19

Schachter et al (1977) gave participants high or low nicotine cigarettes and found that they adjusted the number they smoked accordingly.

Question 20

[MAINTENANCE] What does chronic exposure to nicotine lead to?

Answer 20

Down-regulation in the brain, which means that more nicotine is needed in order to produce the same pleasurable effect.

Question 21

[MAINTENANCE] What do withdrawal effects do?

Answer 21

They ensure that the individual continues to smoke as they want to avoid the negative effects of nicotine withdrawal.

Question 22

[MAINTENANCE] What can make people more likely to become addicted to and then dependent on nicotine?

Answer 22

Genetic factors.

Question 23

[MAINTENANCE] Describe Thorgeirsson et al’s (2008) study.

Answer 23

They studied 50,000 Icelanders, and identified a specific gene variant on chromosome 15 which influenced the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Those who smoked less than 10 cigarettes a day were less likely to have this gene.

Question 24

[MAINTENANCE] What is an advantage of Thorgeirsson et al’s (2008) research?

Answer 24

It explains why not everyone who tries smoking becomes addicted, as it is possible that they do not have the gene variant mentioned in the study.

Question 25

[MAINTENANCE] What is a disadvantage of Thorgeirsson et al’s (2008) research?

Answer 25

Not everyone with the gene became a heavy or dependent smoker - other factors must be involved.

Question 26

[RELAPSE] What creates individual differences in vulnerability to relapse?

Answer 26

Genetic variation.

Question 27

[RELAPSE] What can sudden abstinence from cigarettes cause?

Answer 27

Severe withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability, lack of concentration and weight gain.

Question 28

[RELAPSE] Why do so many people relapse?

Answer 28

They cannot cope with the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.

Question 29

[RELAPSE] How can the smell of nicotine trigger a relapse?

Answer 29

The reward pathways stimulated by nicotine are linked to memory areas in the brain, so when nicotine is smelt dopamine levels can soar.

Question 30

[RELAPSE] Describe Xian et al’s (2003) study.

Answer 30

They studied twins who were trying to quit smoking, and found that 54% of the risk of relapse can be attributed to genetic factors.

Question 31

[RELAPSE] What do biological explanations of relapse fail to consider?

Answer 31

They fail to consider psychological and behavioural aspects of the smoking addiction, which smokers frequently cite as a cause of cravings and eventual relapse.