9. Problem-solving: Animals, Humans, and Machines

Question 1

problem-solving

Answer 1

• type of thinking requires realization that a problem exists
• appears to involve conscious manipulation of knowledge and involves:
  1. sensemaking
  2. reasoning
  3. decision-making
• problem cannot be solved by an automatic process of perception or recognition (we haven’t encountered this problem before, and therefore we cannot retrieve a solution)

Question 2

constrained problem-solving: Scrabble

Answer 2

goal
- win the scrabble game
relevant objects (resources, problem-solver)
- knowledge of players, dictionary
operations available
- combine letters
constraints
- spell legal words
- words must intersect with other words
- maximise points

Question 3

puzzling problems: Thorndike’s cat in a box

Answer 3

• refer to page 57 of notebook

Question 4

perceptual reorganization analogy: Getsalt Principles

Answer 4

• if perception is more than just compiling lists of features, problem-solving is more than just listing of info relevant to problem
• gestalt psychologists specified processes relating info used during problem-solving followed by insight (a-ha moment)

Question 5

animal problem-solving: Kohler’s (1925) chimps

Answer 5

• chimps try to solve a problem, pause for a period and then go directly to the solution
• chimps’ B suggested that problem solving sometimes require a reorganization of objects + their relationship between one another in the problem solver’s environment

Question 6

Kohler’s Gestalt problem-solving

Answer 6

in Gestalt terms, problem-solving involves
- attention to the structure of the problem - restructuring may be necessary
- insight involving the sudden realization of solution to a problem
- use of productive and reproductive strategies - interference can result from use of reproductive strategies
- problem solving set

Question 7

Kohler’s Gestalt problem-solving: problem-solving set

Answer 7

• tendency to repeat a solution process that has been previously successful
• e.g. taking a circuitous route to an unfamiliar city because it is easier than learning a new more direct route

Question 8

Kohler’s Gestalt problem-solving: functional fixedness

Answer 8

• if an object has one established use in a situation, people have difficulty using the object in another way
• e.g. glue is for sticking one object to another, more or less permanently - post it notes

Question 9

Kohler’s Gestalt problem-solving: Duncker’s candle-and-tack problem example

Answer 9

• refer to slide 14 of powerpoint

Question 10

problem-restructuring

Answer 10

• refer to slide 15 of powerpoint for Maier’s two-string problem
• refer to slides 16-17 of powerpoint for the Tumour Problem
• refer to slides 18-19 of powerpoint for Die Hard jug problem

Question 11

mental sets

Answer 11

• formed, which aids them in completion of subsequent tasks
• when given different examples, participants had an incompatible mental set that created performance decrements
• i.e. less ACC in finding solution

Question 12

general features of problem-solving

Answer 12

• previously learned responses can interfere with problem-solving (e.g. compatibility problems)
• Lunchin’s work

Question 13

general features of probem-solving: Lunchin’s work

Answer 13

• provided important insights into problem solving, producing a body of experimental data for evaluation by later researchers
• neurological evidence suggests that insight (vs non-insight) problems activate specific regions (right anterior superior temporal gyrus)

Question 14

issue with general features of problem solving

Answer 14

• ‘insight’ and ‘restructuring’ are vague concepts
• more descriptive that explanatory

Question 15

alternatives to Gestalt approach

Answer 15

• procedural (step by step) approach
• Wallace’s stages of problem solving
  1. preparation: formulation of the problem
  2. incubation: leave problem temporarily
  3. illumination: insight into correct solution
  4. verification: make sure solution actually works

Question 16

problem space theory:

Answer 16

info processing approach to problem-solving
- problem solver searches a problem space filled with possible solutions
- some work, some don’t
computer simulation of problem solving by humans based on protocols collected form subjects as they solved problems

Question 17

problem space

Answer 17

• combination of initial state, goal state and intermediate (states necessary for solution and other potential states)
• intermediate states contain both the optimal solution and other potential states
• multiple solutions can achieve the goal state (depending on constraints)
• refer to the maze example, page 58 in notebook

Question 18

problem space theory: components

Answer 18

operators
- actions that cna be performed to move from one problem state to another state
heuristics
- strategies for the efficient application of operators that generally lead to the goal state
- contrast with algorithm
constraints
- limitations that are imposed by info processing system
- e.g. working memory and attention limitations

Question 19

domain-independent heuristics: means-end analysis

Answer 19

1. note difference between current sate and goal state
   - e.g. I’m at the top left corner of the maze and I want to be in the bottom right corner
2. create sub goals to reduce differences
   - e.g. I need to get to the middle because there appears to be a path leading to the bottom right
3. select operator that will lead to the subgoal
   - e.g. this path appears to be heading in the right direction; I’ll take it!

Question 20

domain-independent heuristics: loop avoidance strategy

Answer 20

1. note how often steps are repeated
2. if they are repeated and no further advancement is made toward the goal state, do something else
   - e.g. if I keep coming back to the same part of the maze, I’m lost

Question 21

domain-independent heuristics: working backward

Answer 21

1. start at the goal state and move towards initial state
   - RECALL water lily problem

Question 22

domain-dependent heuristics

Answer 22

heuristic that can be used in a fixed context for a limited number of problems

Question 23

domain-independent heuristic

Answer 23

heuristic for use in any problem

Question 24

domain-dependent heuristic examples

Answer 24

1. counting tiles to measure a surface area of a lorr
   - tiles won’t allow you to measure the size of an atom
2. rounding numbers when performing calculations
   - you can’t actually have the average number of children
3. bringing a doctor’s note for a missed test
   - if you’ve missed someone’s birthday (or job interview) you’re out of luck

Question 25

domain-dependent heuristics: Tower of Hanoi

Answer 25

• refer to slides 31-32-33 of PowerPoint
• benefit: limited nb of intermediate stages - easy to model
• we want to avoid the suboptimal path

Question 26

Tower Power: Kotovsky (1985)

Answer 26

• suggested that working memory = required (hints only in ‘no load’ condition), unless participants have automated their response selection

Question 27

Tower Power: Goel and Grafman (1995)

Answer 27

examined performance of patients with frontal lobe lesions compared to controls (no difference in IQ/memory)
- both used same general strategies with no evidence that planning was impaired
- patients had issues in identifying and resolving conflicts between goals and subgoals

Question 28

cognitive mechanisms of problem solving: domain general mechanisms

Answer 28

working memory
- central executive
- phonological loop
- visuo-spatial sketchpad

Question 29

cognitive mechanisms of problem solving: domain specific mechanisms

Answer 29

long-term memory
- procedural knowledge
- schemas
- templates
- knowledge/organization

Question 30

cognitive mechanisms of problem solving: problem space theory

Answer 30

• useful for understanding well-defined problems
• HOWEVER, majority of problems are ill defined
• e.g. raising children, learning the piano, writing a novel

Question 31

What do we need to do with other situations and problems from our experience?

Answer 31

We need to find similarities