4. Varieties of Attention: Division, Switching and Application

Question 1

multiple resource theory: task factors

Answer 1

similar tasks produce more interference
- shared modalities, e.g. A/V
- same processing channel (code) e.g. spatial/verbal
- some processing stages e.g. encoding, central processing, responding

Question 2

multiple resource theoery: learning

Answer 2

• well-practiced tasks are subject to less interference from other (concurrent) tasks
• extent of practice = degree of automaticity
• we may be process faster than our conscious systems

Question 3

divided attention and practice

Answer 3

refer to slide 6 for example of study

Question 4

theories of divided attention: what is their goal?

Answer 4

• these models attempt to understand methods that can decrease interference and how this relates to automaticity
• RECALL McGurk effect

Question 5

theories of divided attention: central capacity

Answer 5

• info processing capacity can be general (amodal)
• can be used across different settings and stimuli

Question 6

theories of divided attention: modular capacity

Answer 6

• numerous specific info-processing systems (evidence from neuroscience) work independently
• BUT can be coordinated to complete a task

Question 7

general capacity limitations

Answer 7

if performance decreases whne participants are presneted with stimuli in two modalities (e.g. visual and auditory), there is 1 general capacity limitation

Question 8

specific capacity limitation

Answer 8

if performance decreases when participants are presented with a single (compound) stimulus that has 2 dimensions (e.g. colour and size), there must be multiple, independent capacities

Question 9

Lindsay, Forbes, and Taylor: divided attention study

Answer 9

results
- found that how participants’ attention was divided was critical to their performance
- dividing attention decreases performance
- performance was worse when attention was divided within a modality (e.g. brightness and size) relative to between modalities (brightness and loudness)

Question 10

videogames and SR mappings

Answer 10

• when playing a video game, you must learn that a certain set of keys will perform an action and another requires a different set
• SR mappings
• RECALL Flanker Task (F + P = associated together as a target set)
• as you become accustomed to one video game, and stitch to another, you create interference

Question 11

task switching

Answer 11

• associating many responses/ideas toegther underscores the importance of a task set
• task set: temporary top-down organization that facilitates some responses, while inhibiting others
• task switching = shifting from one response set to another
  **becoming an expert helps

Question 12

switching costs

Answer 12

• increase in RT and decrease in ACC
• due to the need to remap S and R
• if the task set changes, we don’t know what we are looking at

Question 13

automatic processes

Answer 13

• fast, obligatory processing unaffected by capacity limitations and unavailable to introspection
• with practice, complex tasks (e.g. driving) can become automatic
• explicit to implicit

Question 14

controlled processing

Answer 14

• slow, flexible processing, affected by capacity limitations
• requires attention

Question 15

varied and consistent mapping - Shneider and Shiffrin experiment: the effects of automatic processing

Answer 15

refer to slides 19-20-21
conclusions:
1. automatic processing is NOT always beneficial
- may adapt to certain env. but may not be transferable to other situations
2. automaticity “frees” more attentional resources for other tasks, increases performance
3. automaticity produces rigidity, which can create performance decrements
4. in instances where flexibility is required, controlled processes should be used

Question 16

supervisory attention system

Answer 16

• explicit process that intervenes in automatic process
• shift proposed = discrete (all or none)
• we switch to controlled processing
  ** RECALL instant space theory

Question 17

instant space theory

Question 18

instance theory of automatization

Answer 18

• separate memory trace for each event
• practice creates additional memory for events and activation of processes
• practice facilitates retirval of memory of past events
• automaticity = memory retrival
• memory becomes higher than conscious system
• memory retrieval is ALWAYS automatic

Question 19

consistent mapping tasks

Answer 19

• promote storage of similar memories - more traces
• “novice performance = limited by lack of knowledge rather than lack of resources”: experts know what to look for
• there are other pathways but they are lower
• we are building up patterns of activation

Question 20

current models of automaticity

Answer 20

• new theories porpose that rather than FASTER processing, automaticity = best construed as more EFFICIENT
• navigating in Ottawa example

Question 21

2 systems: System 1 and System 2

Answer 21

S1: associative system
- automatic
- holistic
- parallel
- low capacity requirements
- relatively fast
- highly contextualized
S2: analytic system
- rule-based
- controlled
- serial
- high capacity requirements
- relatively slow
- highly decontextualized

Question 22

attention vs awareness

Answer 22

• not the same thing
• awareness:
  1. requires attention, STM + LTM
  2. we need early filtration of noise to find signal
  3. we can’t fully attend to stimuli unless we process it
• attention:
  1. acts as gateway for all other mental operations
  2. thus, affects everything we do

Question 23

dual-task paradigm

Answer 23

• cell-phone study and passenger study
• refer to slides 31 to 38