9: Physiology Flashcards
covers gas exchange, neural signalling, transport and integration of body systems
1
Q
melatonin is inhibited by what
A
light
2
Q
do capillaries have a large or small lumen
A
small
3
Q
what does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland do primarily
A
produce and release
4
Q
step 5 of synaptic transmission
A
neurotransmitters are released through exocytosis ad diffuse across
5
Q
what type of tissue does the body use to repair damage to the walls of arteries
A
fibrous tissue
6
Q
what is a stimulus
A
change that can be detected
7
Q
what is the role of the cerebellum
A
coordinates muscle contraction timing
balance
things that require muscle memory
(doesn’t initiate movement, that’s the job of the motor cortex of the cerebrum)
8
Q
4 features of gas exchange(alveoli)
A
moist, thin, large SA, rich blood supply to maintain conc grad
9
Q
what disease is related to occlusion
A
CHD, coronary heart disease
10
Q
the brain and nervous system are examples of what organs
A
central information integration organ
11
Q
when you breathe in, what contracts
A
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
12
Q
why are capillaries’ lumens small
A
narrow lumen, slows blood, diffusion can happen
13
Q
what is tidal volume
A
volume of air exhaled/inhaled for each breath
14
Q
two examples of chemical and nervous interactions
A
osmoregulation and heartbeat
15
Q
what is a casual link
A
one variable causes change in another
16
Q
what doesn’t epidemiological study show about diet and heart disease
A
doesn’t prove casual link, just relationship
17
Q
is the white matter in the middle or the outside
A
outside
18
Q
through what process do the arteries narrow due to blockages
A
antherosclerosis
19
Q
what contracts with you breathe out
A
abdominal and interior intercostal muscles
20
Q
what is vital capacity
A
maximum amount of air lungs can hold
21
Q
what two tissues are the spinal chord made up of
A
white matter and grey matter
22
Q
what is action potential
A
a temporary localised reversal in voltage across the membrane (-65mV to 35mV)
23
Q
if depolarization is large enough to pass the threshold…
A
there is a temporary localised change in voltage
24
Q
what is a nerve
A
bundle of nerve fibres surrounded by a sheath
25
what is respiration
chemical process that happens in all cells in which food molecules are oxidized to release energy
26
what relaxes when you breathe out
diaphragm, external intercostal muscles
27
what is the CNS made up of
brain and spinal chord
28
what do epidemiological studies show about diet and heart disease
shows correlation
29
what is the rule for surface area to volume ratio?
as the size of the organism increases, the surface area to volume ration decreases
30
where is melatonin produces
pineal gland
31
what hormone controls the circadian rhythm
melatonin
32
what is saltatory conduction
instead of sodium/potassium going in and out, the electrical charge jumps from node to node
33
what is ventilation rate
number of inhalations/exhalations per min
34
what is myelination
creating myelin sheaths, with nodes of ravier between
35
what is depolarization
membrane potential goes from negative to positive
36
5 adaptations of xylem vessels
thick cellulose cells walls
strengthens walls with lignin
cells are dead and hollowed
walls break down
bordered pits allow water column to bypass blockage
37
when you breathe in, what relaxes
abdominal and interior intercostal muscles relax
38
input of ..., output of ... (in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland)
nerves, hormones
39
the hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland, point where neuro and endo system meet
fun fact
40
what is expiratory reserve volume
amount of air a person can exhale after a normal breath
41
what is a nerve impulse
electrical signal passed between two cells
42
don't forget to look at diagram xx (page 97)
love ya
43
which body part is the carotid pulse
neck
44
what is the word for a narrowing of arteries due to blockage
occlusion
45
what is an epidemiological study
Epidemiology is the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why
46
whole is greater than the sum of it part, what does reference
integration is responsible for emergent properties
47
inside of a neuron is relatively pos or neg
negative, -70, -65 mV
48
step 7 of synaptic transmission
if there are enough ions entering cell, it generates action potential
49
what is breathing
movement of air in and out the lungs
50
step 8 of synaptic transmission
neurotransmitters removed from synapse
51
look at cross sectioned diagram of plant stem and root x
52
what happens because fibrous tissue isn't elasticy
lesions called plaques are formed, leads to clots, blocks coronary arteries, heart muscles die, heart attack
53
step 6 of synaptic transmission
bind to post synaptic receptors and ion channels open
54
give example of neurotransmitter
acetylcholine
55
what do myelin sheaths do
insulate electrical charge
56
does the pump use diffuse or active transport
active transport, requires ATP
57
explain the heartbeat example of integrations of systems
TO DO
58
what does antherosclerosis cause
damage to artery wall due to high blood pressure
59
vital capacity equation
Tidal volume+IRV+ERV
60
what two parts are the nervous system made up of
CNS and nerves
61
what does grey matter do
processes decisions
is for unconscious processes like movement of food
62
explain the osmosis example of integrations of systems
osmoregulatory in hypothalamus SENSE solute concentration
if too high pituitary releases hormone ADH
this increases reabsorption of water in the kidneys
63
what does the xylem transport
transports water and minerals like K, Mg and P
64
what two other things happen when you breathe in, not to do with relaxing and contracting
volume increases, pressure decreases
65
what does white matter do
transmits signals from receptor to brain and brain to other organs
66
what is gas exchange
oxygen diffuses in one direction, CO2 diffuses in the other
67
recite phrase about transpiration concerning cohesion and adhesion
loss of water in plant by transpiration from cell walls in leaf cells causes water to be drawn out of xylem vessels by capillary action (adhesion) generating tension. cohesion ensures this
68
step 2 of synaptic transmission
voltage gated calcium ion channels open
69
2 ways nerves are adapted
large diameter (less resistance)
myelination
70
where is the radial pulse
wrist
71
how does depolarization occur
sodium rapidly diffusing in
72
what is another word for adrenaline
epinephrine
73
effects of epinephrin (6)
hydrolysis of glycogen, increase diameter of bronchi, breathing increases, heart rate increases, increases blood flow to liver and muscles, decreases blood flow to gut/kidneys
74
what are the blockages in arteries called, that are the buildup of deposits
atheromas- these narrow the lumen
75
how does repolarization occur
potassium rapidly diffuses out
76
what does the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland do primarily
stores/releases hormones made by hypothalamus eg adh
77
what is the chain from sensory receptors to effector
sensory receptor, sensory neuron, CNS, motor neuron, effector
78
step 4 of synaptic transmission
calcium ions force vesicles with neurotransmitters to fuse with membrane
79
what sort of cells does saltatory conduction work for
myelinated cells
80
what is the circadian rhythm
patter of sleep/wake cycle that organisms are adapted for
81
what two elements are associated with the pump in neurons
sodium and potassium
82
what is repolarization
membrane potential rapidly goes from positive to negative
83
step 3 of synaptic transmission
calcium ions enter through facilitated diffusion
84
at rest, sodium ions are on the inside or outside
outside
85
3 ways capillaries are adapted
large surface area due to branching, thin walls, fenestrations
86
why do veins have a wide lumen
maximises volume of blood
87
what is the problem with using fibrous tissue to repair artery walls
not elasticy
88
what does surfactant do
reduces surface tension and makes is moist
89
what does epinephrin do
increases glucose and oxygen supply to skeletal muscles
90
what do type 2 pneumocytes make
surfactant
91
what is step 1 of synaptic transmission
action potential reaches end of presynaptic nerve
92
what is inspiratory reserve volume
amount of air a person can inhale after a breath
93
why do arteries have a narrow lumen
to maintain blood pressure
94
example of casual link
smoking is a casual link to lung disease
95
how many steps are there for process of synaptic transmission
8
96
how many sodiums are pumped out for every potassium in
3 sodium's out for every 2 potassium coming in- overall net loss of one positive charge
97
what does the sodium potassium pump do
establishes resting potential by actively transporting sodium to the outside and potassium to the inside
98
what is membrane potential
voltage created by an imbalance of charges on either side of the membrane
99
what is homeostasis
process of maintaining a constant internal environment for maintenance of optimal conditions for enzyme function
100
3 factors controlled by homeostasis
core body temperature
concentration of glucose in the blood
osmotic concentration of the blood
101
difference between negative and positive feedback loop
positive feedback loops amplify change
negative feedback loops return values to set values
102
Diabetes:
homeostatic control of blood glucose has failed
insulin function is disrupted and glucose conc in blood rises
103
3 symptoms of diabetes
glucose in urine
dehydration
fatigue
104
reasons for diabetes symptoms
gluc in pee: kidneys cannot filter excess glucose
Dehydration: excess glucose is eliminated by the kidneys, large amounts of water is pulled along with it
Fatigue: glucose remains in blood rather than cell, less respiration
105
how is type 1 diabetes treated
insulin injection, moderated diet with less carbs
106
cause of T1 diabetes
body's immune system attacks beta cells of the islets of langerhan in the pancreas
107
what occurs in T1 diabetes
pancreas fails to make insulin
108
is type one or two diabetes more common?
two
109
What is Type 2 diabetes?
cells stop responding properly to insulin (insulin resistance), leading to high blood sugar. Over time, the pancreas may also make less insulin.
110
What is insulin resistance?
When body cells do not respond properly to insulin, meaning less glucose enters the cells and stays in the blood.
111
What happens to the pancreas in Type 2 diabetes
the pancreas produces extra insulin to compensate. Over time, the beta cells wear out and make less insulin.
112
Why does insulin resistance happen?
Fat cells release chemicals that block insulin’s effect, and long-term high blood sugar reduces insulin sensitivity
113
how to treat T2 diabetes
low carb diet, exercise
114
why is it important that blood glucose doesn't drop
needed for respiration
115
in three words, effect of insulin
lowers glucose concentration
116
in three words, effect of glucagon
increases glucose concentration
117
4 effects of insulin
- glucose channels in cell membranes open
- glucose moves out of blood and into cells via facilitated diffusion
-liver and muscle cells convert excess glucose into glycagon (via glycogenesis)
- increase in respiration, using up glucose
118
glucagon effects 2
activation of enzymes that enable hydrolysis of glycogen in liver and muscles
this relases glucose (via glycogenolysis)
decrease in respiration
119
an increase in blood glucose is detected by
beta cells in pancreas
120
decrease in blood glucose in detected by
alpha cells in pancreas
121
flow diagram blood glucose concentration increases:
set value increases-->detected in beta cells in pancreas--> insulin secreted-->glucose absorbed to liver cells and stored as glycogen
122
flow diagram blood glucose concentration decreases:
set value decreases-->detected in alpha cells in pancreas--> glucagon secreted-->hydrolysis breaks glycogen to glucose
123
do alpha or beta cells secrete insulin
beta
124
glucagon is secreted by
alpha cells
125
islets of Langerhans are made up of what tissue
endocrine
126
other than endocrine tissue, what other tissue is in the pancreas and what does it do
makes digestive enzymes like lipase and amylase
127
thermoregulation is a what feedback control
negative
128
external body temperatures are monitored by
peripheral thermoreceptors
129
internal body temperatures are monitored by
the hypothalamus
130
2 ways effectors can respond to deviation from normal body temperatures
controlling heat loss at the skin to the external environment
modifying the generation of heat inside the cells by metabolism
131
why can temperature not get too high
enzymes will denature and loose their tertiary structure
132
why can temperature not get too low
prevent or slows down reaction, low kinetic energy=less collisions
133
3 reactions to an increase in temp
vasodilation
sweating
hair flattens
134
3 reactions to decrease in temp
vasoconstriction
hairs stand
shivering
135
explain vasodilation
arterioles near the skin dilate, more blood flow= more heat loss
136
explain sweating
cools skin by evaporation, uses heat energy from body to convert liquid vapour to water vapour
137
explain hair flattens
air erector muscles relax, allows air to circulate
138
explain vasoconstriction
muscles in arteriole walls contract, arterioles contract= less blood flow to skin
139
explain hairs stand
hair erector muscles contract, forms an insulating layer- less effective in humans
140
explain shivering
muscles contracting and relaxing increases respiration, meaning more heat energy
141
what does innate immune system mean
had since birth
142
are phagocytes innate or adaptive immune system
innate
143
is innate immune system specific or not
not specific- adaptive is
144
what is produced with adaptive immune system
antibodies and memory cells
145
true or false, innate and adaptive immune system don't change over time
false- innate no, adaptive yes
146
another words for white blood cells
leucocytes
147
where are phagocytes made
bone marrow
148
are phagocytes specific or not
non specific
149
where are enzymes used in endocytosis stored
lysosomes
150
what movement is it when the cell surface membrane of phagocyte extends out around the pathogen and engulfs it
amoeboid movement
151
where are lymphocytes made
bone marrow
152
where are lymphocytes found
lymph nodes and circulating blood
153
what are three types of lymphocytes called
t helper cells
b cells
cytotoxic t cells
154
lymphocytes: __________ bind to ________ on _________, and tag it for destruction by other immune cells
antibodies
antigens
pathogens
155
where to do t cells mature
thymus gland
156
what are t cell receptors activated by?
activated by antigens
157
when are t cells activated?
when they encounter and bind to a specific antigen
158
what do t cells activate?
B cells
159
where are b cells made
bone marrow
160
what are b cells activated by
t helper cells
161
cytotoxic t cells:
able to kill own cells that are virally infected or cancerous
162
each lymphocyte is ___ with ____ of ______
unique
shape
receptor
163
true or false- antigens are proteins
true- except blood group antigens are carbohydrates
164
allergens:
they are a type of antigen-and the body thinks they are harmful
165
5 step process of activation of B lymphocytes by T helpers
1) pathogen engulfed by macrophages (phagocytes/phagocytosis)
2) the antigen is presented outside the macrophage (antigen presenting cell)
3) T lymphocytes bind to the antigen and become activated
4) activated T cells bind to a specific lymphocyte, b cell
5) B cell is activated
166
how are activated b cells multiplied
clones itself via mitosis
differentiates- expresses different genes, differentiates into plasma cells
grows and produces antibodies- primary response
167
b cells differentiate into ______ cells or _________cells
plasma
memory
168
________ cells recognise the ______, divide ______ and differentiate into ________ producing _______ cells
memory
antigen
quickly
antibody
plasma
169
is AIDS the pathogen or the disease
disease, HIV is the pathogen
170
which way round
"causes" "AIDS" "HIV"
HIV causes AIDS
171
what does HIV stand for
human immunodeficiency virus
172
what type of virus is HIV
retrovirus
173
4 ways HIV is passed on
unprotected sex
sharing needles
transfusion of blood
childbirth
174
which body cells does HIV infect specifically
T helper cells
175
what is the result of HIV infecting T helper cells
B cells aren't activated, antibodies aren't produced
176
when is a person HIV positive
when antibodies for HIV are first detected in the blood
177
when is a person diagnosed with aids
when their helper T cell count falls below a critical threshold and/or they develop opportunistic infections or AIDS-defining illnesses. This marks the progression from HIV infection to AIDS.
178
what does AIDS stand for
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
179
people don't die from AIDS or HIV, they die from....
opportunistic infections with no immune response to tackle them
180
what sort of drugs can prevent/halt immune system damage from HIV
antiretroviral drugs
181
antibiotics are drugs that in short
inhibit the growth of microorganisms
182
antibiotics kill or stop the growth of ___karyotes
prokaryotes
183
antibiotics don't harm the cells of infected organism because
they only block metabolic processes in prokaryotes and not eukaryotes
184
antibiotics block______ processes in ____and not ________
metabolic
prokaryotes
eukaryotes
185
fungi fact antibiotics
some fungi naturally produce antibiotics to decrease competition
186
3 examples of prokaryote metabolic processes that antibiotics block
transcription
translation
DNA replication
187
what does penicillin interfere with
bacterial cell wall
188
why are antibiotics not effective for viruses
they are non living- no metabolism
189
by using antibiotics often, humans exert a ______ _______ on bacteria which supports the evolution of__________ _________
selective pressure
antibiotic resistance
190
antibiotics will kill all _______ in the gut except for ________ ________ ones. this leads to reduced ___________ so they ________
bacteria
antibiotic resistant ones
competition
multiply
191
three ways to control antibiotic resistance
avoid over/incorrect prescriptions
high standards of hygiene
minimise antibiotics in treating agricultural animals
192
example of why species specific diseases might not be able to cross species barriers
wrong body temp
species doesn't have receptors
193
what diseases can cross species barrier from animal to human
zoonotic
194
example of a zoonotic disease
covid 19
HIV- (chimp, but now human only)
195
a vaccine is what
a source of anitgens of DNA/RNA that codes for antigens
196
vaccines induce____ without causing _____
immunity
disease
197
2 types of vaccines
live attenuated
inactivated
198
live attenuated vaccine:
weakened version of the pathogen
199
inactivated vaccine:
killed non living components of pathogen- just has the antigen
200
vaccines cause _____ cells
memory
201
what is herd immunity
if a large enough percentage of the population is vaccinated, it provides protection for the entire population--> few places for the pathogen to breed
202
herd immunity prevents ____ and _____
epidemics and pandemics
