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PHARM 110 > 8 - Central Nervous System > Flashcards

8 - Central Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

What Secondary brain structures give rise to Adult brain structures?

list them

A
  • Telencephalon -> cerebrum, lateral ventricles
  • Diencephalon -> diencephalon, 3rd ventricle
  • Mesencephalon -> Midbrain (brain stem), cerebral aqueduct
  • Metencephalon -> Pons (brain stem) & Cerebellum, 4th ventricle
  • Myelencephalon -> medulla oblongata (brain stem), Central canal
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2
Q

What are the Axis of the brain?

Rostral, caudal, dorsal & ventral

A
  • rostral - anterior
  • caudal - posterior
  • dorsal - superior
  • ventral - inferior
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3
Q

What are the main Adult brain regions?

A
  • Cerebral hemispheres
  • Diencephalon
  • Brain stem – midbrain, pons & medulla
  • Cerebellum
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4
Q

What are the Cerebral lobes?

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe
  • Insular lobe
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5
Q

What are the Cerebral Hemisphere Markings?

A
  • Central Sulcus - separates precentral & post central gyrus
  • Lateral sulcus - frontal & parietal lobes
  • Transverse cerebral fissure - cerebrum from cerebellum
  • longitudinal fissure - left & right cerebral hemispheres
  • parieto-occipital sulcus - parietl & occipital lobes
  • calcarine sulcus - separates primary visual cortex
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6
Q

What layers protect the brain?

A
  • SCALP
    • Skin, CT, Aponeurosis, LCT, Pericranium
  • Bone (skull)
  • Blood-brain barrier
  • Membranes (meninges)
  • Watery cushion (CSF)
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7
Q

What is the blood brain barrier & what does it do?

A
  • Helps maintain stable envmt for brain
  • Physically separates neurons from certain bloodborne substances
  • Acts as a metabolic barrier
  • Surrounds majority of brain tissue
  • Tight junctions b/w endothelial cells is the key structure to the blood-brain barrier
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8
Q

Blood-brain Barrier Transport Routes

A
  • Paracellular – doesn’t typically happen, not a practical route
  • Transcellular – lipophilic, efflux pump shoots it back out
  • Inhibit – more can get through, some drugs are efflux inhibitors
  • Transport proteins – bring in energy molecules, ex. Glucose
  • Receptor-mediated transcytosis – ex. Insulin
  • Absorptive transcytosis
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9
Q

What are the Meningeal layers and what do Meninges do?

A
  • dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
  • Cover & protect CNS
  • Divides skull into parts
  • Protect blood vessels & enclose dural venous sinuses
  • Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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10
Q

What are the functions of CSF?

A
  • Gives buoyancy to brain
  • Protects CNS from blows & trauma
  • Nourishes brain & carries chemical signals
  • Clears wastes
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11
Q

What are the Ventricles? Path through them?

A

lateral ventricle > Interventricular foramen > 3rd ventricle > cerebral aqueduct > 4th ventricle > median aperature, lateral aperature, central canal

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12
Q

What are the Dural Venous Sinuses?

A
  • Superior Sagittal sinus
  • Inferior Saggital Sinus
  • Straight sinus
  • Transverse sinus
  • Sigmoid sinus
  • Internal Jugular vein
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13
Q

What is the Path of CSF from ventricles to sinues?

A

Ventricles > Choroid plexus of 3rd ventricle > Subarachnoid space > Arachnoid villi > Sinuses

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14
Q

What are the cerebral hmeispheres composed of?

A
  • White matter - Myelinated fibers & their tracts, highways
  • Cerebral cortex - Thin layer of superficial gray matter, cities
  • Subcortical nuclei - Basal ganglia (PNS)/nuclei (CNS)
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15
Q

What are the 3 types of White Matter fibers?

A
  • Commissural fibers – connect gray matter of 2 hemispheres
  • Association fibers – connect diff parts of same hemisphere
  • Projection fibers – connect hemispheres w/ lower brain or spinal cord
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16
Q

What are the main Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex?

A
  • Motor areas – control voluntary movement
  • Sensory areas – conscious awareness of sensation
  • Association areas – integrate diverse information
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17
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A
  • Precentral gyri of frontal lobe contains pyramidal neurons
  • Long axons form upper motor neuron corticospinal tracts
  • Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements
  • Somatotopic arrangement
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18
Q

Premotor Cortex

A
  • Anterior to precentral gyrus in frontal lobe
  • Sends info to primary motor cortex to coordinate muscle groups for simultaneous or sequential actions
  • Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
  • Involved in planning of movements that depend on sensory feedback
  • Direct connection w/ corticospinal tract (15%)
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19
Q

Broca’s Area

A
  • Anterior to inferior region of premotor area in frontal lobe
  • Present in 1 hemisphere (usually left)
  • Motor speech area that directs tongue muscles
  • Active as one prepares to speak
  • Area in right hemisphere controls non-verbal communication

Left side – programs what you say
Right side – programs how you say it

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20
Q

Frontal Eye Field

A
  • Anterior to premotor cortex in frontal lobe, superior to Broca’s area
  • Controls voluntary eye movements
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21
Q

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

A
  • In postcentral gyri of parietal lobe
  • Receives sensory info from skin, skeletal muscles & joints
  • Capable of spatial discrimination
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22
Q

Somatosensory Association Cortex

A
  • Posterior to primary somatosensory cortex
  • Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex
  • Determines size, texture & relationship of parts of objects being felt
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23
Q

Primary Visual Cortex

A
  • Extreme posterior tip of occipital lobe (most of it is buried medially in calcarine sulcus)
  • Receives visual info from retinas
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24
Q

Visual Association Area

A
  • Surrounds primary visual cortex
  • Uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (ex. Color, form & movement)
  • Complex processing involves entire posterior ½ of cerebral hemispheres
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25
Q

Primary Auditory Cortex

A
  • Superior margin of temporal lobes
  • Interprets info from inner ear as pitch, loudness & location
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26
Q

Auditory Association Cortex

A
  • Posterior to primary auditory cortex
  • Stores memories of sounds & permits perception of sounds
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27
Q

Olfactory Cortex

A
  • Medial aspect of temporal lobes
  • Conscious awareness of odors
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28
Q

Gustatory Cortex

A
  • In insula, deep to temporal lobe
  • Involved in perception of taste
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29
Q

Visceral Sensory Area

A
  • Posterior to gustatory cortex
  • Conscious perception of visceral sensations
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30
Q

Multimodal Association Areas

A
  • Receives input from multiple sensory areas; sends output to multiple areas
  • Allow us to give meaning to info received, store it as memory, compare it to previous experience & decide on actions to take
  • 3 parts:
    • Anterior association area (aka prefrontal cortex)
    • Posterior association area
    • Limbic system (deep)
  • Info > recognize what it is > do we need to do something
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31
Q

Anterior Association Area

A
  • In frontal lobe – just deep to forehead
  • Most complicated cortical region (executive function)
  • Involved w/ intellect, cognition, recall & personality
  • Not fully developed until you’re 25
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32
Q

Posterior Association Area

A
  • Large region in temporal, parietal & occipital lobes
  • Plays role in recognizing patterns, faces & localizing us in space
  • Prosopagnosia, unilateral neglect
  • Involved in understanding written & spoken language – Wernicke’s area
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33
Q

Limbic Association Area

A
  • Part of limbic system
  • Provides emotional impact & helps establish memories
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34
Q

Basal Nuclei

A
  • Subcortical nuclei
  • Consists of corpus striatum
    • Caudate nucleus – next to lateral ventricle
    • Lentiform nucleus
      • Putamen – lateral cone
      • Globus pallidus – medial
  • Functionally associated w/ subthalamic nuclei (diencephalon) and substantia nigra (midbrain)
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35
Q

What are the functions of basal nuclei?

A
  • Influence muscular control
  • Help regulate attention & cognition
  • Regulate intensity of slow or stereotyped movements
  • Inhibit antagonistic & unnecessary movements
36
Q

What makes up the Diencephalon?

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Thalamus
  • Epithalamus
  • 3rd ventricle runs through
37
Q

Thalamus

A
  • 80% of diencephalon
  • Superolateral walls of 3rd ventricle
  • Connected by interthalamic adhesion
  • Contains several nuclei that project & receive fibers from cerebral cortex
  • Relay station
38
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • Forms inferolateral walls of 3rd ventricle
  • Contains many nuclei
  • Mammillary bodies (memory, limbic & smell)
  • Supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei – posterior pituitary
  • Suprachiasmatic nucleus – pineal gland
39
Q

What are the functions of Hypothalamus

A
  • Autonomic control center for many visceral functions
  • Regulates body temp, food intake, water balance, & thirst
  • Regulates sleep & sleep cycle
  • Produces posterior pituitary hormones
  • Controls release of hormones by anterior pituitary
  • Center for emotional response – the 4 F’s
    • Feeding
    • Fearing
    • Fighting
    • Fornication
40
Q

Epithalamus

A
  • Most posterior of diencephalon & roof of 3rd ventricle
  • Pineal gland - secretes melatonin
  • Pine cone shaped
41
Q

What parts make up the brain stem?

A
  • midbrain
  • pons
  • medulla oblongata
42
Q

What are the stuctures on the Midbrain?

A
  • Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles - contain pyramidal motor tracts
  • Superior colliculi (2) - visual reflex centers
  • Interior colliculi (2) - auditory relay centers
  • Substantia nigra - functionally linked to striatum (dopamine)
    • So have dopaminergic inputs to nuclei
  • Red nucleus - relay nuclei for some descending motor pathways & part of reticular formation
  • Periaqueductal gray - suppresses pain
43
Q

What are the structures of Pons?

A
  • Forms part of anterior wall of 4th ventricle
  • Pyramidal tract - connects higher brain centers & spinal cord (motor)
  • Some nuclei of reticular formation
  • Nuclei that help maintain normal rhythm of breathing
44
Q

What are the Structures of Medulla Oblongata?

A
  • Joins spinal cord at foramen magnum
  • Forms part of ventral wall of 4th ventricle
  • Pyramids - 2 ventral longitudinal ridges formed by pyramidal tracts (motor)
  • Decussation of pyramids - crossover of corticospinal tracts
  • Inferior olivary nuclei - relay sensory info form muscles & joints to cerebellum
  • Several nuclei - nucleus cuneatus & nucleus gracilis
  • Relay sensory info
45
Q

What are the Autonomic Reflex Centers in MO?

A
  • Cardiovascular center:
    ○ Cardiac center - adjusts force & rate of heart contraction
    ○ Vasomotor center - adjusts blood vessel diameter for BP regulation
    ○ Both have influence blood pressure
  • Respiratory centers:
    ○ Generate respiratory rhythm
    ○ Control rate & depth of breathing
  • Additional centers regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, & sneezing
46
Q

What is the Cerebellum & its Functions?

A
  • Posterior to pons & medulla
  • Subconsciously provides precise timing & appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
  • Ipsilateral to body
  • Form coordinated movement
  • Plays role in nonmotor functions such as word association & puzzle solving
47
Q

What are the Structures of Cerebellum?

A
  • hemispheres connected by vermis
  • Each hemisphere has 3 lobes
    ○ Anterior
    ○ Posterior
    ○ Flocculonodular (vesibular)
  • Folia - transversely oriented gyri of gray matter making up cerebellar cortex
    ○ Contains Perkinjee cells
    ○ Arbor vitae - distinctive treelike pattern of cerebellar white matter
  • 3 paired fiber tracts connect cerebellum to brain stem
    ○ Superior cerebellar peduncles - connect cerebellum to midbrain (sup.)
    ○ Middle cerebellar peduncles - connect pons to cerebellum
    ○Inferior cerebellar peduncles - connect medulla & cerebellum (inf.)
47
Q

What areas of Cerebrum does Middle Cerebral Artery Supply?

A
  • face & head
  • Broca Area
  • Wernicke’s area
  • Visual cortex
  • Auditory area
  • motor & sensory for hip, trunk, arm, hands, fingers, thumb, face, lips, tongue, mouth
  • Language comprehensions
  • Reading & writing
47
Q

What areas of cerebrum does Anterior Cerebral Arteries supply?

A
  • prefrontal cortex - working memory, exectuvie functions, complex problem solving
  • supplementary motor area
  • Motor Area for foot, leg, and urinary bladder
  • somatic sensory - sensory area for foot & leg
48
Q

What areas of cerebrum does Posterior Cerebral Arteries supply?

A
  • Visual cortex w/ striate along calcarine sulcus
  • primary visual cortex & visual association area
48
Q

What are Functional Brain systems?

Definition

A
  • Networks of neurons that work together & span wide areas of brain
48
Q

What are examples of Functional brain systems

A
  • Limbic system
  • Reticular formation
  • Direct & indirect pathways of the basal nuclei
48
Q

What is the Limbic System? Parts?

A
  • Structures from medial cerebral hemispheres & diencephalon
  • Cerebral structures encircle superior brainstem
  • Establish emotional states
  • Linking conscious, intellectual functions of cerebral cortex w/ unconscious & autonomic functions of brain stem
  • Facilitating memory storage & retrieval
  • Amygdala, Cingulate Gyrus, Hippocampus
48
Q

Amygdala

A
  • Almond-shaped nucleus anterior to tail of caudate deep in medial temporal lobes
  • Critical for responding to perceived threats
  • Required for emotional memory
48
Q

Cingulate Gyrus

A
  • Located along medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres next to corpus callosum
  • Plays a role in responding to perceived threats, expressing emotions vis gestures & resolves mental conflict when frustrated
49
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • Looks like sea horse
  • Located in medial temporal lobe
  • Connected to mammillary bodies of hypothalamus through white matter (fornix)
  • Plays role in learning, memory & emotion
49
Q

Reticular Activating System

A
  • Sends impulses to cerebral cortex to keep it conscious & alert & enhancing its excitability
  • Filters out repetitive & weak stimuli (99%)
  • Inhibited by sleep centers of hypothalamus & other neural regions
    ○ Depressed by alcohol, sleep inducing drugs & tranquilizers
  • Severe injury results in permanent unconsciousness
49
Q

What is the Reticular Formation?

A
  • 3 broad columns along length of brain stem
  • Has far-flung axonal connections w/ hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum & spinal cord
  • Regulate visceral motor functions (vasomotor, cardiac & respiratory centers)
  • Helps control coarse limb movements
    Not specific, coordinated movements
49
Q

What is Consciousness & the continuum?

A
  • Simultaneous activity of large areas of the cerebral cortex
    • Conscious perception of sensation
    • Voluntary initiation & control of movement
    • Capabilities associated w/ higher mental processing (memory, logic, judgment etc..)
  • Alertness
  • Drowsiness (lethargy) -> sleep
  • Stupor
  • Coma
50
Q

What occurs during sleep?

A
  • State of partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused by stimulation
  • Alternating cycles of sleep & wakefulness reflect a natural circadian rhythm
  • RAS activity is inhibited during sleep
  • Suprachiasmatic & preoptic nuclei of hypothalamus time sleep cycle
  • Releases peptide orexins which activate reticular formation (wake-up chemical)
  • Nonrapid eye movement (NREM)
  • Rapid eye movement (REM)
51
Q

What is the Importance of Sleep?

A
  • Slow-wave sleep (NREM stages 3 & 4) is restorative stage
  • deprived of REM sleep become moody & depressed & exhibit various personality disorders
  • REM sleep may be a reverse learning process
  • enhances immune system - sleep-inducing factors include interlukin-1, interferon, serotonin & tumor necrosis factor
52
Q

What are the 2 stages of Memory?

A
  • Short-term memory (STM or working memory)
    • Temporary holding of info, limited to 7-8 pieces of info
  • Long-term memory (LTM) has limitless capacity
    • Can have some info go directly to long term memory
53
Q

What factors affect transfer from STM to LTM?

A
  • Emotional state - best if alert, motivated, surprised, & aroused
  • Rehearsal - repetition & practice
  • Association - tying new info w/ old memories
  • Automatic memory - subconscious info stored in LTM
54
Q

What occurs on a Molecular Level for Memory?

A
  • Altered mRNA is synthesized & moved to axons & dendrites
  • Dendritic spines change shape
  • Extracellular proteins are deposited at synapses involved in LTM
  • Number & size of presynaptic terminals may increase
  • More neurotransmitter is released by presynaptic neurons
55
Q

What is Declarative Memory

A
  • Related to conscious thoughts & language ability
  • Stored in LTM w/ context in which it was learned
  • Hippocampus & surrounding temporal lobes function in consolidation & access to memory
  • Ach from basal forebrain is necessary for memory formation & retrieval
55
Q

What is Nondeclarative Memory

A
  • Less conscious or unconscious
  • Acquired through experience & repetition (best remembered by doing, hard to unlearn)
  • Emotional memory - Amygdala
  • Motor memory - Cerebellum
  • Procedural memory - basal nuclei relay sensory info & motor inputs to thalamus & premotor cortex
  • Dopamine
56
Q

When excitatory neuron fires a lot…

A

postsynaptic neuron will fire alot

57
Q

When excitatory neuron fires a little…

A

Postsynaptic neuron fires a little

58
Q

When inhibitory neuron fires a lot…

A

postsynaptic neuron fires a little

59
Q

When inhibitory neuron fires a little…

A

Postsynaptic neuron fires a lot

60
Q

Effect of dopamine direct vs. indirect

A

Direct circuit is excited by SNpc dopamine input while indirect circuit is inhibited by SNpc dopamine

61
Q

Effect of thalamic input to cortex - direct vs indirect

A
  • direct - increase excitatory thalamic input to cortex
  • indirect - decrease excitatory thalamic input to cortex
62
Q

Effect on motor activity - direct vs. indirect

A
  • direct - turns UP motor activity
  • indirect - turns down motor activity
63
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin and end?

A
  • Begins at foramen magnum
  • Ends as conus medullaris at L1
64
Q

How many spinal nerves are there?

A
  • 31 pairs
  • 8 cervical spinal nerves
  • C1 - C7 exit above vertebrae of same #1
  • 12 thoracic spinal nerves
  • 5 lumbar spinal nerves
  • 5 sacral spinal nerves
  • 1 Coccygeal
  • All other exit below vertebrae of same #
65
Q

What are the functions of the spinal cord?

A
  • Provides 2-way communication to & from brain
  • Brain talks to body & body talks to brain
  • Contains spinal reflex centers
66
Q

What protection does the Spinal Cord have?

A
  • Bone, meninges, & CSF (in subarachnoid space)
  • Cushion of fat & network of veins in epidural space
  • Denticulate ligaments - lateral extensions of pia mater that secure cord to dura mater
  • Dural & arachnoid mater extend to S2
  • Cauda equina
  • Filum terminale
67
Q

Parts of Gray Matter in Spinal Cord

A
  • Ventral horns - somatic motor neurons
    ○ Ventral = motor
  • Lateral horns - only in thoracic & lumbar regions, sympathetic neurons
  • Only found T1-L2
  • Dorsal horns - interneurons receiving somatic & visceral sensory input
    ○ Dorsal = sensory
  • Dorsal root ganglia - cell bodies of sensory neurons
68
Q

Parts of White Matter in Spinal Cord

A
  • Spinal tract = collections of axons w/ similar functions
  • Consists of bilateral tracts in 3 white columns (funiculi)
  • Ascending/sensory tracts - dorsal, lateral + ventral columns
  • Descending/motor tracts - lateral + central columns
  • Transverse tracts (commissural fibers) cross from one side to other
69
Q

What are the Ascending Pathways?

A
  • Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways (DCML) - thalamus
  • Spinothalamic pathways (anterolateral pathway) - thalamus
  • spinocerebellar tracts - terminate in cerebellum
70
Q

Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal (DCML) Pathaways

A
  • discriminative touch & vibrations
  • sensory ascedning pathway
  • ascends same side of body which it enters
  • crosses over in medulla
  • 2nd neuron enters thalamus
  • 3rd neuron to somatosensory cortex
71
Q

Lateral Spinothalamic tract

A
  • pain & temperature impulses
  • sensory ascending tract
  • 1st neuron in DRG, synapses & crosses over in dorsal horn where it enters
  • 2nd neuron ascends opposite side to thalamus
  • 3rd neuron to primary somatosensory cortex
72
Q

Spinocerebellar tract

A
  • subconscious proprioceptive info from trunk & lower limb to cerebellum
  • ONLY 2 NEURONS
  • doesn’t go to thalamus, goes to cerebellum
  • ipsilateral projections
73
Q

What are the Descending Pathways?

A
  • Direct - corticospinal/pyramidal tract
  • Indirect - all the other ones

NOTE: Involve 2 neurons:
* Upper motor neurons - cortex to spinal cord
* Lower motor neurons - spinal cord to skeletal muscle (ventral horn motor neurons)

74
Q

Direct (corticospinal) Tract

A
  • Impulses from pyramidal neurons in precentral gyri (primary motor cortex)pass through pyramidal tracts (upper motor neurons)
  • crossing over at medulla
  • Axons synapse w/ interneurons or ventral horn motor neurons (lower motor neurons)
    Regulates fast & fine (skilled) movement
75
Q

Indirect (Extrapyramidal) system

A
  • Pathways are complex & multisynaptic
  • Tectospinal tract - mediate head movements in response to visual stimuli (contralateral)
  • Vestibulospinal tract - maintain balance during standing & moving (ipsilateral)
  • Corticobulbar tract - motor to skeletal muscle of cranial nerves (both contralateral & ipsilateral)

PHARM 110 (12 decks)

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