7. Moral Development

Question 1

What is moral development?

Answer 1

Involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong. Has intrapersonal and interpersonal dimension.

Question 2

How to study how adolescents behave in moral circumstances?

Answer 2

observational study using 1 way mirror

Question 3

How to study how adolescents feel about moral matters?

Answer 3

whether they feel guilty enough to resist temptation

Question 4

What are the 3 domains in domain theory?

Answer 4

Moral domain: cheating, lying, harming others
Social conventional domain: speaking out of turn
Personal domain: choosing friends
components in all 3 domains are often interrelated.

Question 5

What does Lawrence Kohlberg propose about moral development?

Answer 5

That moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning and unfolds in a series of stages.

Question 6

How did Kohlberg come up with the different stages of moral reasoning?

Answer 6

He conducted interviews with people of different ages and present them with moral dilemmas. Interested in their moral reasoning for their answer rather than their answer itself.

Question 7

What is the key concept of understanding progression through Kohlberg’s levels and stages?

Answer 7

the person’s morality becomes more internalised. starts to encompass more complex coordinations of multiple perspectives.

Question 8

What are the 3 levels in Kohlberg’s model of moral reasoning?

Answer 8

Level 1: Preconventional reasoning (no internalization)
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning (intermediate Internalization)
Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning (full internalization)
Kohlberg argues that they occur sequentially and are age-related. Any change in moral reasoning between late adolescence and early adulthood appears to be relatively gradual.

Question 9

What are the 3 levels and 6 stages in Kohlberg’s model of moral reasoning?

Answer 9

L1: Preconventional
S1: Punishment & Obedience orientation
S2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose and Exchange
L2: Conventional
S3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, interpersonal conformity
S4: Social systems morality (community and citizenship)
L3: postconventional
S5: social contract or individual rights
S6: universal ethical principles

Question 10

Describe the 2 stages of preconventional reasoning.

Answer 10

S1: punishment and obedience (children obey adults because they get punished if they don’t obey)
S2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose (what’s in it for me? what is right involves an equal exchange. I am nice to others so others will be nice to me.)

Question 11

What is conventional reasoning characterised by?

Answer 11

individuals abide by certain internal standards, but these standards are the standards of others (external) such as parents or society

Question 12

Describe the 2 stages of conventional reasoning.

Answer 12

S3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, interpersonal conformity (individuals value trust, caring for, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments. eg. being a “good child”)
S4: social systems morality (importance of being a good citizen. being moral to achieve social order, law, justice, duty)

Question 13

What is postconventional reasoning characterised by?

Answer 13

internal morality. Individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and decides on a moral code. Engage in deliberate checks on their reasoning to ensure it meets their ethical standards.

Question 14

Describe the 2 stages of postconventional reasoning.

Answer 14

S5: social contract and individual rights (individuals can reason that values and rights underpin and transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of laws and social systems in terms of the degree to which they protect fundamental human rights and values.)
S6: universal ethical principles (moral standard is based on universal human rights. when faced with conflict between law and conscience, the person follows conscience, tho it might involve personal risk)

Question 15

Why was stage 6 recently removed from the scoring manual?

Answer 15

Because it was extremely elusive and hard to attain. But it is still considered theoretically important.

Question 16

What influences an individual’s moral development?

Answer 16

cognitive development and exposure to appropriate social experiences.

Question 17

How do we advance individual’s levels of moral development?

Answer 17

Present them with arguments that reflect moral thinking slightly beyond their cognitive levels. Creates disequilibrium that motivates a restructuring of moral thought. Resolution of disequilibrium increases their level of moral development.

Question 18

How can peer interactions help individuals progress in moral development?

Answer 18

Provides social stimulation that challenges them to change their moral orientation.
Role-taking opportunities: mutual give and take in peer interaction helps children take the role of another person and generate rules democratically

Question 19

What kind of parent-child experiences can induce children to think at more advanced levels or moral reasoning?

Answer 19

• parents who encourage conversation about value-laden issues
• parents’ discussion style that involves questioning and supportive interaction

Question 20

What are 4 critics of Kohlberg’s model of moral reasoning?

Answer 20

1) too much emphasis on moral thought, not enough emphasis on moral behavior
2) flawed assumption that moral thinking is deliberative and individuals go around constantly contemplating and reasoning about morality.
3) neglects the role of emotion in moral reasoning. Increasing evidence that emotions play an important role in moral thinking.
4) neglects role of culture and role of family.

Question 21

Some critics argue that Kohlberg’s model focuses too much on moral reasoning and not enough emphasis on moral behavior. Explain why this can be problematic.

Answer 21

Moral reasons can be used as a shelter/rationalisation for immoral behavior. Moral reasoning ability does not equate to moral behaviors. (eg. terrorism - we see how such cruel acts can be cloaked in moral virtue.)
People don’t usually engage in harmful conduct until they have justified the morality of their actions to themselves.

Question 22

Kohlberg’s model has been criticised for assuming moral reasoning is deliberative and conscious all the time, when it is in fact unconscious/automatic most of the time. Explain.

Answer 22

Haidt argues that most moral thinking is more of an intuitive gut reaction than deliberative moral reasoning, which is often an after-the-fact justification.

Question 23

What evidence suggests that emotions play an important role in moral thinking?

Answer 23

making moral decisions is linked to intensity and activation of emotion in specific region in prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

Question 24

Some critics claim that Kohlberg’s theory is culturally biased. How so?

Answer 24

Universality of first 4 stages supported but stages 5 and 6 not found in all cultures.
Underestimates the influence of culture. Collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize stage 3 and 4 which is interpersonal relationships and social systems community (being a good citizen)

Question 25

What is a cohort effect found pertaining to moral reasoning?

Answer 25

In recent years, postconventional reasoning has been declining in college students, down to the lowest level (personal interests).

Question 26

What is Carol Gilligan's critic of Kohlberg's theory?

Answer 26

That it reflects a gender bias

Question 27

What perspectives did Carol Gilligan propose?

Answer 27

Care and Justice perspective. Justice perspective -- argues that Kohlberg's theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others. Puts justice at the heart of morality. Sees the individual as independently making moral decisions. Care perspective -- views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes relationships and concern for others. Argued that Kohlberg greatly underplayed the care perspective as his research was mostly with males.

Question 28

What does recent meta-analysis suggest about Gilligan's claim of gender bias?

Answer 28

casts doubt on gilligan's claim on gender differences. girls' moral orientations somewhat more focused on care for others than abstract principles of justice, but they can use both moral orientations when needed.

Question 29

Besides hypothetical moral dilemmas, what is a new measure for moral development?

Answer 29

Defining Issues Test (DIT) determine which moral issues individuals feel are critical in a given situation by presenting a series of dilemmas and a list of potential considerations in making a decision. List the most important values that govern human interaction. More valid and reliable way to assess moral thinking.

Question 30

What is a critique of the hypothetical moral dilemma approach?

Answer 30

do not match the moral dilemmas people face in everyday lives. moral dilemmas not just focused on family and authority, it also focused on friends, acquaintances etc.

Question 31

What does moral behavior entail?

Answer 31

Both antisocial behavior (eg. cheating, lying, stealing) and prosocial behavior (eg. helping others)

Question 32

What are some behavioral processes that can explain how and why adolescents learn certain moral behaviors?

Answer 32

reinforcement, punishment, imitation/modelling

Question 33

What does effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment of moral behavior depend on?

Answer 33

Depends on how consistently they are administered and the schedule adopted

Question 34

What does the effectiveness of modelling if moral behavior depend on?

Answer 34

Depends on characteristics of the model (power, warmth, uniqueness etc) and the presence of cognitive processes (eg. symbolic codes) that enhance retention of the modeled behavior. Also models often don't do what they say.

Question 35

Moral behavior tends to be situationally dependent. How so?

Answer 35

adolescents not likely to display consistent moral behavior in diverse social settings. A completely honest or completely dishonest child was hard to find. situation-specific moral behavior was the rule. (eg. adolescents more likely to cheat when friends pressured them to do so and chances of getting caught is slim.)

Question 36

What does the social cognitive theory of moral development emphasize?

Answer 36

emphasize a distinction between moral competence (ability to produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (The enactment of those behaviors in specific situations).

Question 37

What does Albert Bandura argues about understanding moral development?

Answer 37

Argues that moral development is best understood by considering a combination of social and cognitive factors, especially those involving self-control.

Question 38

What is the importance of self-control in moral behavior?

Answer 38

It is a self-regulatory process in which people monitor their conduct and the conditions under which it occurs, judge it in relation to moral standards, and regulate their actions by the consequences they apply to themselves.

Question 39

What is altruism?

Answer 39

an unselfish interest in helping another person

Question 40

What circumstances are more likely to elicit altruism? (2)

Answer 40

1) empathetic or sympathetic emotion | 2) close relationship between giver and recipient

Question 41

Why does prosocial behaviour occur more often in adolescence than in childhood?

Answer 41

cognitive changes -- advances in abstract, idealistic, and logical reasoning. Can better sympathize with members of abstract groups they have little experience with. an unselfish interest in helping another person

Question 42

What are the 6 types of prosocial behavior?

Answer 42

1) altruism 2) public (help when others are watching) 3) emotional (help when others are upset) 4) dire (help when others are in an emergency) 5) anonymous 6) compliant (help when others ask for it)

Question 43

What gender differences are there in types of prosocial behavior?

Answer 43

Adolescent girls reported more emotional, dire, compliant, and altruistic behavior. Boys engaged in more public prosocial behavior

Question 44

Parental monitoring was positively related to what kinds of prosocial behavior?

Answer 44

emotional, dire, and compliant behavior

Question 45

Religiosity was related to what kinds of prosocial behavior?

Answer 45

compliant, anonymous, and altruistic prosocial behavior

Question 46

What is forgiveness?

Answer 46

when a victim releases the aggressor from possible behavior retaliation.

Question 47

What is adolescents' tendency to forgive influenced by?

Answer 47

peer pressure

Question 48

What is gratitude?

Answer 48

feelings of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful

Question 49

Gratitude is linked with what positive outcomes?

Answer 49

- satisfaction with family - optimism - prosocial behavior - fewer depressive symptoms - less suicidal ideation

Question 50

Gratiude is linked with what long term positive outcomes?

Answer 50

- stronger sense of meaning of life - more satisfied with life - were happier and more hopeful

Question 51

Current research focuses less on ___ behavior compared to ____ behavior.

Answer 51

prosocial; antisocial

Question 52

Which structure of Freudian's personality is the moral branch?

Answer 52

superego

Question 53

How do children form their superego?

Answer 53

By identifying with the same-sex parent and internalizing the parents' standards of right and wrong that reflect societal prohibitions. They feel guilt about the hostility towards the same-sex parent and this guilt keeps them from committing transgressions.

Question 54

What is the ego ideal?

Answer 54

the ideal standards approved by parents. child is rewarded as acting according to it conveys a sense of pride and personal value.

Question 55

What is the role of conscience?

Answer 55

Punishes the individual for acting immorally by making the individual feel guilty and worthless. This self control replaces parental control over time.

Question 56

How do adolescents reconcile their moral learning in childhood with ideological concerns in adolescence?

Answer 56

They may lose their sense of purpose in life temporarily when their logical reasoning abilities conflict with their childhood moral beliefs. This leads adolescents to find a new ideology that can mesh with their newfound cognitive abilities. If others share the ideology, they feel a sense of community.

Question 57

Describe empathy in adolescents.

Answer 57

In early adolescence, they start developing empathy for people who live in general unfortunate circumstances. This newfound sensitivity may lead them to behave altruistically. Empathy increases from 12 to 16 years of age.

Question 58

What did adolescent empathy predict two decades later?

Answer 58

Social competencies - adult empathy - communication skills - relationship satisfaction

Question 59

what kinds of feelings contribute to adolescents' moral development?

Answer 59

both positive (empathy, sympathy) and negative feelings (anger, shame, guilt).

Question 60

What is the 4th dimension of moral development?

Answer 60

moral personality.

Question 61

What does the idea of the moral personality emphasize?

Answer 61

when people violate their moral personality and commitment, it places the integrity of the self at risk.

Question 62

Why has there been little interest in studying moral personality?

Answer 62

because social learning theory argues that situations > traits when predicting moral behavior.

Question 63

Why has there been a revival of interest in studying moral personality?

Answer 63

Social cognitive theory emphasized the importance of "person" factors while still recognizing situational variation.

Question 64

What are 3 aspects of moral personality? (ICE)

Answer 64

1) moral identity 2) moral character 3) moral exemplars

Question 65

Individuals are said to have moral identity when...

Answer 65

moral commitments are central to their life. violating this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk.

Question 66

What are 2 characteristics of a morally mature individual?

Answer 66

1) moral responsibility is central to their identity. stronger sense of obligation. doing something immoral violates their very identity. 2) engage in moral metacognition, including moral self-monitoring and moral self-reflection

Question 67

What is moral self-monitoring?

Answer 67

monitoring one's thoughts and actions related to moral situations, and engaging in self-control when needed

Question 68

What is moral self-reflection?

Answer 68

critical evaluations of one's judgements and efforts to minimize bias and self-deception

Question 69

What does having moral character involve?

Answer 69

having the strength of your convictions, persisting and overcoming obstacles and temptations. Involves commitment to act in accordance with moral goals.

Question 70

Who are moral exemplars and why should we study them?

Answer 70

Refer to people who lived exemplary lives. Studying moral exemplars help us to characterized the ideal end-point of moral development and how people got there.

Question 71

What are the 3 different exemplars of morality?

Answer 71

1) Brave -- dominant and extraverted 2) Caring -- nurturant and agreeable 3) Just -- conscientiousness and open to experience

Question 72

By studying similar traits between all 3 moral exemplars, what could this reflect?

Answer 72

A possible core of moral functioning

Question 73

What does the social domain theory posit?

Answer 73

3 different domains of social knowledge and reasoning: 1) moral domain 2) social conventional domain 3) personal domains

Question 74

What is social conventional reasoning?

Answer 74

Focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus to control behavior and maintain the social system. Rules are arbitrary (eg. queueing up and not cutting queue) If we violate these conventions there are sanctions.

Question 75

What is moral reasoning?

Answer 75

Rules of morality. Not arbitrary. They are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal. (eg. lying cheating, harm)

Question 76

Is it more serious to violate moral rules or social conventional rules?

Answer 76

moral rules

Question 77

Explain how the social conventional approach pose a serious challenge to Kohlberg's approach.

Answer 77

Kohlberg argued that social conventions are stage leading to higher moral sophistication. But social conventional reasoning advocates that it is not lower than postconventional reasoning, but a separate domain altogether.

Question 78

What is the personal domain?

Answer 78

individual's independent decision making and personal discretion. include control over one's body, privacy, choice of friends, and activities. not governed by moral strictures or social norms

Question 79

How does the contemporary view of moral development differ from Piaget and Kohlberg's view?

Answer 79

P & K believed that only peers played an important role in the individual's moral development. But contemporary view states that both parents and peers play important roles.

Question 80

Which kind of parenting is associated with higher level moral reasoning in their adolescents?

Answer 80

supportive parenting that encourages questions

Question 81

Name the 3 kinds of parents discipline techniques.

Answer 81

1) love withdrawal 2) power assertion 3) induction

Question 82

Describe what is love withdrawal as a discipline technique.

Answer 82

Rule via fear of punishment and fear of losing parental love. ('if you don't listen to me I don't love you anymore') parent withholds attention or love from the adolescent. generates anxiety.

Question 83

Describe power assertion as a discipline technique.

Answer 83

parent attempts to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent's resources. (eg. spanking, threatening, removing priviledges). generates hostility.

Question 84

Why is power assertion like verbal or physical aggression bad for the child?

Answer 84

because it demonstrates poor self-control of emotional expression. adolescents may imitate this model of poor self-control when they face stressful circumstances.

Question 85

Describe induction as a parental discipline technique.

Answer 85

Parent uses reason and explains the consequences of the adolescent's actions for others.

Question 86

Why is love withdrawal and power assertion ineffective in enforcing discipline?

Answer 86

Any form of discipline will produce emotional arousal in the adolescent. Love withdrawal and power assertion evokes a very high level of arousal, so emotionally aroused that even if parent gives accompanying explanations about consequences, the adolescent might not attend to them.

Question 87

Why is induction a better discipline method?

Answer 87

because induction only produces a moderate level of arousal. allows them to attend to the cognitive rationale offered by parents.

Question 88

How does discipline methods used vary with developmental level of SES?

Answer 88

- Induction works better with adolescents and older children than preschool children as they are better at perspective taking. - induction works better with middle-SES than lower-SES children. internalizing of societal's moral standards more rewarding in middle SES culture.

Question 89

How does discipline style relate to moral development?

Answer 89

parental induction linked to higher moral identity in the individual.

Question 90

What strategies should parents adopt to raise moral children/adolescents? (7)

Answer 90

1) authoritative parenting -- responsive, warm and supportive 2) use inductive reasoning and discipline 3) provide opportunities to learn about perspective taking 4) involve children in family decision making 5) model moral behaviors 6) provide information about what behaviors are expected 7) teach them to regulate negative emotion

Question 91

Which 2 strategies do parents use when values outside the home conflict with parental values?

Answer 91

1) cocooning strategy | 2) pre-arming strategy

Question 92

Describe the cocooning strategy.

Answer 92

Parents protect child from exposure to deviant behavior, eliminating temptation to engage in negative moral behavior. Monitor contexts in which adolescents spend time and restrict their interaction with deviant peers.

Question 93

Describe the pre-arming strategy.

Answer 93

Anticipate conflicting values and preparing adolescents to handle them outside. Parents discuss strategies with adolescents to help them deal with harmful situations.

Question 94

What is the hidden curriculum in schools?

Answer 94

The general moral atmosphere in school. Created by school and classroom rules. the moral orientation of teachers and school administrators, and text materials. Teachers are the model of ethical/unethical behavior. Classroom rules and peer relations transmit attitudes about moral behavior. School rules create a value system.

Question 95

What are the new improvements to the direct education approach in teaching students character education? (4)

Answer 95

more democratic approach - instructions in the form of definition and example, discussions of values and roleplaying, rewarding students for proper behavior - encourage students to develop a care perspective and engage in prosocial behaviors. - expose children to moral exemplars worth emulating - get children to participate in community service

Question 96

What is values clarification?

Answer 96

help individuals clarify what is worth working for in their lives. encourage students to define own values.

Question 97

What is cognitive moral education based on?

Answer 97

Based on Kohlberg's theory of moral development

Question 98

What is service learning and what is its goal?

Answer 98

Students providing service to the community by engaging in activities like tutoring, helping older adults etc. Goal is to help adolescents be less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others.

Question 99

Service learning is effective when 2 conditions are met. What are the 2 conditions?

Answer 99

1) students are given a degree of choice in the service activities 2) students are provided with opportunities to reflect about their participation

Question 100

What are the positive outcomes of service learning? (4)

Answer 100

- improved sense of being able to make a difference for others - identity achievement - exploration of moral issues - increased likelihood to serve as volunteers in the future.

Question 101

Why do students cheat in school?

Answer 101

- pressure to get high grades - time constraints - poor teaching - lack of interest

Question 102

Students are more likely to cheat when...

Answer 102

1) not being closely monitored 2) know their peers are cheating 3) know whether another student has been caught cheating 4) student scores are made public

Question 103

What are some preventive measures to prevent students from cheating?

Answer 103

- make students aware what constitutes cheating - make clear the consequences of cheating - closely monitoring students' behavior during tests - emphasize importance of being a moral, responsible individuals

Question 104

What is a promoting measure of honesty?

Answer 104

honor code policy in institutions emphasizing self-responsibility, fairness, trust, and scholarship.

Question 105

What do values reflect about morality?

Answer 105

Reflects the intrapersonal dimension of morality. our beliefs and attitudes about how the way things should be,

Question 106

Why might short term goals (eg. getting a good grade) and values be problematic?

Answer 106

Doesn't help us develop a plan for the future based on positive values. Many youths lack a clear sense of what they want to do with their lives.

Question 107

What is the typical developmental trend to religiousness?

Answer 107

attending religious services was highest at 14 years, declining after, and increasing again at 20 years.

Question 108

What are some benefits of churchgoing?

Answer 108

- religious communities encourage socially acceptable behavior - positive rol emodels for students

Question 109

self-ratings of spirituality were positively linked to the 5Cs of Positive Youth Development (PYD). What are the 5Cs?

Answer 109

1) competence 2) confidence 3) character 4) connection 5) compassion

Question 110

How does Piaget's cognitive developmental theory explain youth's interests in religion?

Answer 110

1) increase in abstract thinking -- let adolescents ponder over religious and spiritual concepts 2) increased idealism -- whether religion is the best route to creating an ideal world' 3) increased logical reasoning -- ability to sort through different answers to spiritual questions

Question 111

Does religious socialisation work?

Answer 111

usually yes. children/adolescents tend to adopt the religious teachings of their upbringing.

Question 112

How does religiousness link to premarital sexual attitudes and behavior of youth?

Answer 112

adolescents who frequently attend religious services are likely to hear more messages about abstinence from sex. It also increases the probability that they will become friends with those who have restrictive attitudes toward premarital sex.