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PL3244 > 3. Brain & Cognitive Development > Flashcards

3. Brain & Cognitive Development Flashcards

1
Q

The brain has plasticity and its development depends on context. How so?

A

Genes form the basic wiring patterns of the brain. Environmental input and experiences help to determine how connections are made and shape its neural connections.

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2
Q

What does the neuroconstructivist view argue about the brain’s development?

A

the brain’s development is shaped by both biological and environmental processes. Importance of interactions between experiences and gene expression in brain development (epigenetic view).

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3
Q

Development of the brain is closely linked with _______ development

A

cognitive development

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4
Q

What happens to white matter and gray matter during adolescence?

A

increase in white matter (myelinated axons) and decrease in grey matter (dendrites and cell bodies) in prefrontal cortex

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5
Q

What is pruning?

A

Many synaptic connections are made at birth, but less than half will ever be used. The connections used will be strengthened and survive, while unused ones are replaced by other pathways or disappear altogether.

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6
Q

During adolescence, there is an increase in which neurotransmitter?

A

dopamine - prefrontal cortex and limbic system (risk taking, reward seeking)

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7
Q

How does the corpus callosum change during adolescence?

A

thickens. improved ability to process information

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8
Q

What is the level of development of the prefrontal cortex during early adolescence?

A

Not adequately developed to control their strong emotions

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9
Q

What is the level of development of the limbic system (reward) during adolescence?

A

matures much earlier than prefrontal cortex. Almost completely developed by early adolescence.

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10
Q

What does increased myelination during adolescence do to the brain?

A

Allows greater connectivity and integration of brain regions. Develop greater efficiency and focal activation in local area of the brain.

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11
Q

Dopamine activity is greatest in limbic system pathways in ____ adolescence.

A

early

preference for immediate rewards decline after

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12
Q

How can risk taking possibly benefit adolescents?

A

help them be open to new experiences and challenges, even risky ones. help them stretch themselves and learn about new aspects of the world

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13
Q

Which comes first - biological changes in the brain OR experiences that stimulate these changes??

A

No idea. Scientists haven’t determined which comes first. Nature nurture issues.

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14
Q

Can new brain cells be generated in adolescence?

A

Yes! neurogenesis can occur even in adolescent years.

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15
Q

What factors might inhibit or promote neurogenesis?

A

Drugs, stress, exercise, grafting natural stem cells

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16
Q

Can the adolescent’s brain recover from injury?

A

Yes it can repair itself. The brain still has considerable plasticity in adolescence. The earlier the brain injury occurs, the higher the likelihood of successful recovery.

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17
Q

What does the continuing development of the prefrontal cortex through adolescence suggest about education?

A

Tells us that education can help adolescents achieve higher level cognitive functioning, engage in goal-directed behavior, and control emotions better.

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18
Q

What does Piaget argue about cognitive processes for adolescents?

A

Argues that adolescents are motivated to understand their world because it is biologically adaptive. Organise their experience through schemas. Adapt their thinking through assimilation and accommodation.

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19
Q

Why do adolescents move back and forth between cognitive equilibrium and disequilibrium?

A

Because they sometimes face cognitive conflict and a sense of disequilibrium in their attempt to understand the world.

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20
Q

What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s cognitive development?

A

1) sensorimotor stage
2) preoperational stage
3) concrete operational stage
4) formal operational stage

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21
Q

What are the 3 characteristics of the formal operational stage?

A

1) Abstract thinking (hypothetical possibilities; metacognition)
2) Idealism (focused on achieving ideal standards)
3) Logical thinking (systematic problem solving)

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22
Q

What are the 2 sub periods of the formal operational stage?

A

1) early formal operational thought

2) late formal operational thought

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23
Q

Describe early formal operational thought.

A
  • newfound ability to think in hypothetical ways produce unlimited possibilities
  • world is perceived idealistically
  • assimilation (incorporate new info into existing knowledge)
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24
Q

Describe late formal operational thought.

A
  • test reasoning against experience. restore intellectual balance.
  • accommodation (adjust their idealistic schema to reality)
  • appears in middle adolscence
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25
Q

What is a critique of Piaget’s cognitive theory of development?

A

1) didn’t adequately account for individual differences

2) some cognitive abilities emerged later than Piaget indicated (eg. many adults are not formal operational thinkers)

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26
Q

What are the 2 kinds of cognitive changes that occur in adulthood?

A

1) realistic and pragmatic thinking, idealism decreases
2) reflective and relativistic thinking (adolescents often view the world in terms of polarities. as they become more aware of diverse opinions and perspectives, they move towards more reflective and relativistic thinking. especially essential given increasing complexity of cultures)

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27
Q

How might emotional maturity affect cognitive development?

A

Emerging adults who are more emotionally mature become more aware that their emotions influence their thinking, which can produce distorted and self-serving perspectives.

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28
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of postformal thought?

A

1) reflective, relativistic, and contextual
2) provisional (see search for the truth as an ongoing and never-ending process)
3) realistic
4) recognised as being influenced by emotion

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29
Q

What is wisdom?

A

expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters. Involves exceptional insight about life matters, good judgment, and an understanding of how to cope with difficult life problems

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30
Q

When is the main age window for wisdom to develop?

A

Late adolescence and early adulthood

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31
Q

Is age the only factor for development of wisdom?

A

Nope. other factors include specific life experiences, personal values, and personality related factors like openness to experience and creativity

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32
Q

Sternberg argues that wisdom is a balance between ____, ____, and _____.

A

self-interest, interests of others, and contexts (addressing competing interests)

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33
Q

Vygotsky argues that knowledge can best be advanced through _________.

A

interaction with others in cooperative activities

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34
Q

What is the zone of proximal development?

A

a range of tasks that are too difficult for an individual to master alone, but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled peers

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35
Q

What is lower level of ZPD?

A

level of provlem solving that adolescent can reach by working independently

36
Q

What is higher level of ZPD?

A

level of thinking adolescent can accept with the assistance of an able instructor

37
Q

How does the idea of ZPD link with Vygotsky’s theory?

A

Vygotsky emphasizes importance of socio-cultural influences on cognitive development. So having someone to engage the adolescent within the ZPD can help the individual improve cognitively

38
Q

Which psychologist has a heavier emphasis on sociocultural context? Vygotsky or Piaget

A

Vygotsky

39
Q

What kinds of constructivism does Vygotsky and Piaget advocate?

A

Vygotsky - social constructivism (role of socialcultural contexts)
Piaget - Cognitive constructivism

40
Q

Which psychologist place more emphasis on stages?

A

piaget

41
Q

What is the social cognitive view of vygotsky’s view on education?

A

education as a central role in helping children learn the tools of the culture

42
Q

What is the cogintive constructivist’s view on education?

A

education merely refines the child’s cognitive skills that have already emerged

43
Q

What are 3 criticisms of vygotsky’s sociocultural theory?

A

1) not specific enough about age related changes
2) doesn’t describe how socioemotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development
3) pitfalls on emphasis of collaboration such as when negative relationships can be unhelpful for the individual.

44
Q

What does the information-processing view propose about cognitive development?

A

Information processing capabilities changes as individuals transit from childhood to adolescence to adulthood (eg. attention, memory)

45
Q

What evidence supports the information-processing view of cognitive development?

A

the considerable variation in cognitive functioning present across adolescents shows that adolescents are more producers of their own development than children. Also adolescents have more cognitive resources to be deployed in purposeful ways.

46
Q

Why are adolescents better at divided attention compared to children?

A

because they may have more cognitive resources available to them, or they may be more skilled at directing these resources. so they can concentrate on >1 a activity at a time

47
Q

How does adolescents’ sustained attention compare to children?

A

They are better at maintaining attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. More important as they need to engage in more complex tasks that require longer time frames to complete.

48
Q

Adolescents have better executive attention than children. What is executive attention? (hint: higher-order, complex cognitive processes)

A

Planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks.

49
Q

How does short-term memory develop over the lifespan?

A

STM increases extensively in early childhood and continues to increase in adolescence but at a slower pace.

50
Q

Working memory deficits at age 15 were associated with risk taking behavior at age 18. Why?

A

WM serves as a cognitive filter that allows individuals to hold information in their mind to consider the potential consequences of their actions. If it’s difficult for them to manipulate info in their heads, they can’t make effective decisions

51
Q

How does inhibitory/effortful control change with age?

A

Increases with age. Greater ability to resist a strong inclination to do one thing but instead do what is most effective. Make a real effort to stick to a task, avoiding interfering thoughts or environmental stimuli.

52
Q

Why does inhibitory/effortful control increase with age?

A

Maturation of brain pathways and circuitry. Less diffusion and more focal activation in the prefrontal cortex.

53
Q

older adolescents tend to be _____ competent at making decisions than younger adolescents. Why?

A

more. able to consider more perspectives and regulate their emotions during decision making, to remember prior decisions and their consequences, and adapt current decision making based on those consequences.

54
Q

How does presence of peers influence decision making?

A

increase likelihood of making risky decisions

could activate the brain’s reward system, especially dopamine pathways.

55
Q

How does stress influence decision making??

A

Stress makes individuals more likely to take risks. Impulsive risk takers were less planful but calculated risk takers took fewer risks.

56
Q

How to improve adolescents’ realistic decision making?

A

1) provide more opportunities for them to engage in group problem solving
2) parents can involve adolescents in appropriate decision-making activities

57
Q

(Fuzzy-trace theory dual process model) Comparing verbatim analytical thinking and gist-based intuition, which type of decision making benefits adolescents most?

A

gist-based intuition
we live in a world with a lot of information, hence engaging in too detailed analysis may cause them to get bogged down by trivial detail.

58
Q

When adolescents with high level of inhibition/self-control encounter risky contexts, they are ____ likely to engage in risk-taking behavior.

A

less

59
Q

How does cognitive abilities of adolescents fare compared to children? (4)

A

1) greater speed, automaticity, and capacity of information processing
2) greater breadth of content knowledge in many domains
3) can construct new combinations of knowledge
4) greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies

60
Q

Sternberg argues that schools focus too much on formal reasoning tasks and not enough of?

A

critical thinking skills needed in everyday life

61
Q

What are some critical thinking skills needed in everyday life?

A
  • defining problems clearly
  • handling problems with no right answer (eg. selecting a career or partner)
  • thinking in groups
  • developing long term approaches for long term problems
62
Q

How to encourage critical thinking in adolescents?

A

present them with controversial topics or articles with both sides of an issue to discuss. When students encounter conflicting accounts of arguments, it can motivate them to think more deeply about the topic and attempt to resolve the conflict.

63
Q

What is the difference between convergent thinking and divergent thinking?

A

Convergent – only 1 correct answer

divergent – many answers to same question

64
Q

What is the relationship between intelligence and creativity?

A

many creative adolescents are intelligent, but the reverse is not necessarily true.

65
Q

What are the possible reasons that explain adolescents’ decline in creative thinking over the years?

A

1) more time spent passively watching TV and playing computer games
2) using social media and text messaging instead of creative activities
3) lack of emphasis on creative-thinking skills in schools

66
Q

How can schools encourage students to be more creative?

A

Encourage independent work while making resources readily available. Make the environment more stimulating but not distracting.

67
Q

What are some strategies to increase adolescents’ creative thinking skills?

A

1) brainstorming. come up with as many ideas as possible
2) environments should stimulate adolescents to find insightful solutions to problems
3) don’t over control (will make them think that exploration is a waste of time. let them select their interests and inclinations)
4) build their confidence to create something innovative
5) encourage intrinsic motivation and pleasure derived from creative activities
6) persistence and delay of gratification
7) encourage intellectual risks
8) introduce adolescents to creative people

68
Q

How do people become experts at something?

A

Deliberate practice – ie. practice at an appropriate level of difficulty, with regular corrective feedback, and opportunities for repetition. Many individuals give up on being an expert because they won’t put forth the effort it takes to engage in extensive deliberate practice over many years.

69
Q

What is metacognition?

A

Thinking about thinking.

Thinking about and knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning or solving problems.

70
Q

How do adolescents use metacognitive skills compared to children?

A

They use it more and apply them more effectively. They have a greater capacity to monitor and manage cognitive resources effectively to meet demands of a learning task.

71
Q

What characterises good strategic thinkers?

A

They know when and where to use what strategies, which results from monitoring the learning situation.

72
Q

How should education be improved to help students become more strategic thinkers?

A

Focus more on strategy instruction. Teach them explicitly what strategies may work in what situations

73
Q

How to teach domain-specific thinking skills to adolescents within specific subjects?

A

Analyse and break down the underlying cognitive processes required in completing the task (eg. math problem, writing an essay). such as planning, logic, memory for content etc.

74
Q

What are 2 ways of measure intelligence in adolescents?

A

1) Binet’s IQ test
2) Weschler scales
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (age 6-16)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

75
Q

What are two potential pitfalls when we talk about intelligence?

A

1) can lead to stereotyping and expectations. It’s just a measure of current performance, not future. Maturational changes and enriched environmental experiences can advance their intelligence.
2) IQ is not a sole indicator of competence. Other skills are important too – practical skills, relationship skills, moral values.

76
Q

According to Sternberg’s Triarchic theory, what are the 3 forms of intelligence?

A

1) Analytic intelligence
(analyse, judge, evaluate)
2) Creative intelligence (create, design, invent, imagine)
2) Practical intelligence (apply, put ideas in practice)

77
Q

According to Howard Gardger’s 8 “intelligences”, why do different individuals learn and process information in different ways?

A

Because everyone has all these intelligences but to varying degrees. People learn best when they can apply their strong intelligences to the task.

78
Q

What is emotional intelligence?

A

Emphasizes interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of intelligence.

1) ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively
2) ability to understand emotion and emotion knowledge
3) use feelings to facilitate thought
4) manage own emotions and manage other’s emotions

79
Q

What is the concept of g (general intelligence)?

A

The idea that people who excel at one type of intellectual task are likely to excel in other intellectual tasks.

80
Q

How does brain networks relate to intelligence?

A

Distributed neural network involving frontal and parietal lobes related to higher intelligence. Responsible for cognitive control and connectivity to brain regions outside the network.

81
Q

What is the Flynn effect? What does it show?

A

Rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world with education. Shows the importance of environmental influences

82
Q

What is social cognition?

A

The way individuals conceptualise and reason about their social worlds.

83
Q

What is adolescent egocentrism?

A

The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability

84
Q

What are 2 types of social thinking characterised by adolescent egocentrism?

A

1) Imaginary audience (believing they are the main actors and all others are the audience)
2) Personal fable (sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. ‘Nobody can understand how I truly feel’ Craft stories about themselves filled with fantasy)

85
Q

How long does adolescent egocentrism last?

A

Thought to be only early adolescence but turns out it is still prominent in 18-21 year olds and the results varied by gender. Females score higher on the imaginary audience scale than males.

PL3244 (12 decks)

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