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PL3244 > 11. Achievement, Work, & Careers > Flashcards

11. Achievement, Work, & Careers Flashcards

1
Q

What are 2 common achievement related critics?

A

1) achievement expectations for youth are too low. Not adequately challenged to achieve
2) many adolescents not given adequate support and guidance to reach their achievement aspirations.

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2
Q

How does achievement become more important in adolescence compared to childhood?

A

New social and academic pressures will force adolescents towards different social roles that involve more responsibility. As demands on them increase, different areas of their lives may come into conflict. Begin to perceive current successes and failures as predictors of future outcomes.

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3
Q

What influences adolescents’ abilities to adapt to new academic and social pressures?

A

Psychological, motivational, and contextual factors

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4
Q

What are the 2 kinds of patterns adolescents can adopt in response to new academic and social pressures?

A

1) adaptive motivational patterns – persistent at tasks, and confident in their ability to solve problems
2) maladaptive achievement patterns – giving up easily and not having confidence in their academic skills

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5
Q

What are the 2 types of motivation? Describe them.

A

Intrinsic motivation – based on internal factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort
Extrinsic motivation – involves external incentives such as rewards and punishment

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6
Q

Current evidence favors the promotion of which kind of motivation?

A

Intrinsic motivation to learn

- greater independent motivation and greater persistence on achievement tasks

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7
Q

Parental motivational practices are linked to child’s motivation. Describe task-intrinsic practices and task-extrinsic practices that parents engage in.

A

task-intrinsic practices – encourage children’s pleasure and engagement in learning
task-extrinsic practices – provide external rewards contingent on child’s performance

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8
Q

How to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation? (4)

A

1) provide choices
2) give them challenges that match their skills
3) provide rewards that have informational value but not used for control
4) praise

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9
Q

What are the 3 dimensions of intrinsic motivation? (SOC)

A

1) self-determination and personal choice
2) optimal experiences and flow
3) cognitive engagement and self-responsibility

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10
Q

Why do adolescents need to have a sense of self-determination? (Self-determination theory)

A

Because they want to believe that they are doing something because of their own will, not because of external success or rewards. (“I determine my life”)

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11
Q

How to provide adolescents with a sense of self-determination?

A

Give them opportunities of make choices and take responsibility for their learning

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12
Q

What are autonomy-supportive teachers?

A

Teachers who create circumstances that allow students to engage in self-determination.

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13
Q

When do optimal experiences occur?

A

Occur when people report feelings of deep enjoyment and happiness.

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14
Q

What is flow? And when does flow occur?

A

Flow refers to optimal experiences in life.

  • Occurs when people develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while engaged in the activity
  • Occurs when individuals are engaged in challenges they find neither too difficult nor too easy. (appropriate difficulty)
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15
Q

1) Low skill + High Challenge =
2) Low skill + Low challenge =
3) High skill + Low Challenge =
4) High skill + High challenge =

A
  • anxiety
  • apathy
  • boredom
  • flow
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16
Q

What is the goal of cognitive engagement and self-responsibility?

A

To motivate students to expend the effort to persist and master ideas rather than simply to do enough work to get by and make passing grades.

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17
Q

How to enhance cognitive engagement and self-responsibility?

A

Embedding subject matter content and skills learning within meaningful real-world contexts, especially those that meshes with students’ interests.

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18
Q

What does attribution theory state?

A

States that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their own performance and behavior. Attributions are perceived causes of outcomes. The search for a cause or explanation is often initiated when unexpected and important events end in failure.

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19
Q

What are some common attributions of success or failure on a learning task? (6)

A
  • ability (internal)
  • effort (internal)
  • task ease or difficulty (external)
  • luck (external)
  • mood (internal)
  • help or hindrance from/to others (external)
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20
Q

According to attribution theory, what should adolescents do when they face failure?

A

1) attribute poor performance to internal factors (eg. lack of effort) rather than push the blame to external factors (eg. test was difficult, bad luck)
2) go through mistakes
3) analyze the problem to find a different approach

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21
Q

Adolescents with a mastery motivation tend to show ________________________.

A

cognitive engagement and self-motivation to improve

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22
Q

What are the 3 types of orientation in response to challenging circumstances

A

1) mastery-orientation
2) helpless-orientation
3) performance-orientation

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23
Q

Describe the mastery-orientation.

A
  • Focus is on learning the task well rather than performance.
  • Concentrate on learning strategies and remembering strategies that have worked for them previously.
  • Feel challenged and excited by difficult tasks, rather than being threatened by them
  • Link to amount of effort put into the task
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24
Q

Describe the helpless-orientation. (3)

A
  • trapped by difficulty.
  • attribute failure to lack of ability
  • feel anxious and their performance worsens further
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25
Q

What are some behaviors that suggest helplessness? (helpless-orientation)

A
  • say “I can’t do this”, “I’m not very good at this”
  • doesn’t ask for help even when needed
  • guess or anyhow answer questions without really trying
  • uninterested in learning
  • tries to get out of doing work (avoidance)
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26
Q

Describe the performance-orientation.

A

focused on winning and doing better than others rather than doing well on the task.

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27
Q

Are mastery and performance goals mutually exclusive?

A

NOPE. not always mutually exclusive. Most students are both mastery and performance oriented to varying degrees. Matter of emphasis and priority. Researchers found that mastery goals combined with performance goals often benefit students’ success.

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28
Q

What are the 2 different kinds of mindsets? Describe.

A

Fixed - The belief that your abilities are fixed and cannot change. similar to helpless orientation
Growth - the belief that your abilities can change and improve through effort. similar to mastery orientation

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29
Q

What do individuals’ mindsets influence? (3)

A

1) Outlook – optimistic or pessimistic
2) Goals and how hard they will strive to reach them
3) Achievement and success in different aspects of their lives

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30
Q

How are mindsets shaped?

A
  • shaped through interactions with parents, teachers, and coaches, who themselves have either a fixed or growth mindset
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31
Q

How is a benefit of having a growth mindset?

A

Can prevent negative stereotypes from undermining achievement (eg. gender, ethnicity)

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32
Q

What is willpower?

A

It’s a virtually nonlimited mindset that predicts how long people will work and resist temptations during stressful circumstances.

33
Q

What does willpower and a growth mindset predict?

A

Predicts better self-regulation (time management, procrastination, healthy eating etc.) which is in turn associated with goal attainment.

34
Q

What is self-efficacy?

A

The belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes. Related to mastery orientation.
“I CAN”

35
Q

How does self-efficacy influence a student’s choice of learning activities?

A

Low self-efficacy – avoid learning tasks, especially challenging ones
High self-efficacy – eagerly approach difficult learning tasks

36
Q

What is the relationship between self-efficacy and task persistence?

A

Self-efficacy predicts task persistence in a learning task

37
Q

What are some benefits of having high self-efficacy?

A
  • higher academic aspirations
  • spend more time doing homework
  • more likely to associate learning with optimal experience
38
Q

How does expectations shape students’ achievement motivation?

A

Expect to succeed –> likely to work hard to achieve the goal

39
Q

What are expectations?

A

Beliefs about how well they will do on upcoming tasks, either in the immediate or long-term future.

40
Q

What are 3 aspects of ability beliefs?

A

1) how good they are at a particular activity
2) how good they are in comparison with other individuals
3) how good they are in relation to their performance in other activities.

41
Q

Besides expectations of success, which other factor affect how hard students work?

A

The value they place on the goal

42
Q

What can parents and teachers do to ensure adolescents do well academically?

A

have high expectations for them and provide the necessary support for them to meet those expectations. Don’t protect their self-esteem by setting low standards. Their fragile self-confidence will just be shattered when they encounter more challenging work and are held to higher standards

43
Q

Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are ____, _____, and ______.

A

Specific, proximal, challenging

44
Q

What are the 2 kinds of goals students can set?

A

1) long-term (distal) goals
2) short-term (proximal goals)
can set long term goals, while having short term goals as stepping stones.

45
Q

Why is it important to set challenging goals?

A
  • commitment to self-improvement
  • strong interest and involvement in activities are sparked by challenges. easy goals generate little effort and interest
  • BUT goals should be optimally matched to the individual’s skill level. If goals are unrealistically high, repeated failures will lower the individual’s self-efficacy.
46
Q

What are 3 ways for effective goal management?

A

1) manage time effectively
2) set priorities
3) being organized

47
Q

What is goal monitoring?

A

Monitoring your progress and how well you are sticking to your plan. Evaluate outcomes to improve what you do in the future. High achieving youth often monitor their learning and systematically evaluate their progress toward a goal.

48
Q

Why is it important to encourage youth to monitor their learning?

A

It conveys the message that they are responsible for their own behavior and that learning requires their active, dedicate participation.

49
Q

What does intentional self-regulation involve?

A

Involves selecting goals, optimizing the means to achieve these goals, and compensating for setbacks along the path of goal achievement.

50
Q

What are the 3 stages in Zimmerman’s cyclical model of self-regulated learning?

A

1) Forethought
2) Performance
3) Self-reflection

51
Q

Describe what is forethought in self-regulation in achievement contexts.

A

Adolescent will assess task demands, set goals, and estimate their ability to reach the goals

52
Q

Describe what is performance in self-regulation in achievement contexts.

A

Adolescents will create self-regulating strategies such as time management, attentional focusing, help seeking, and metacognition.

53
Q

Describe what is self-reflection in achievement contexts.

A

Adolescents will evaluate their performance, including attributions about factors that affected the outcome and how satisfied they are with the process and outcome.

54
Q

What is sustained attention?

A

The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time, which requires effort.

55
Q

What is delay of gratification?

A

Postponing immediate rewards to attain larger, more valuable reward at a later point in time. Important aspect of reaching long-term goals. Associated with positive outcomes like academic success, better stress coping, better physical and emotional health.

56
Q

Can ability to delay gratification be improved?

A

Yes

57
Q

What is one important missing ingredient in many adolescents’ and emerging adults’ pursuit of achievement?

A

PURPOSE. What am I achieving all these for? Why does this matter? More than 20% of adolescents and emerging adults interviewed expressed no aspirations and some didn’t see any reason to have aspirations.

58
Q

What is purpose?

A

The ultimate goal of achievement. Has to be meaningful to the individual and possibly contribute something to the world beyond the self.

59
Q

Why do adolescents and young adults often not have a purpose in their achievement?

A

Because teachers and parents emphasize the importance of short-term goals like studying hard and getting good grades, but rarely discuss what these goals might lead to (ie. the purpose). Hence students often simply focus on the short-term goals and don’t explore the long-term picture of what they want to do with their lives.

60
Q

What are some social contexts that influence adolescents’ achievement?

A

1) parents
2) peers
3) teachers
4) mentors
5) culture and SES

61
Q

How do parents influence adolescents’ achievement? (5)

A

1) expectations
2) parents themselves must have high self-efficacy in parenting and teaching
3) providing right amount of challenge and support
4) positive emotional climate to internalise parents’ values and goals
5) modeling motivated achievement behavior

62
Q

How can peers influence adolescents’ achievement? (2)

A

1) through social goals, social comparison, and peer status (positive social comparison –> high self esteem; negative social comparison –> low self esteem)
2) peer acceptance (more accepted and better social skills –> more motivated to achieve academically)

63
Q

How do teachers influence adolescents achievement? (3)

A

1) expectations of students’ success
2) amount of support provided for them to be self-regulated achievers
3) positive learning environment (awareness of individual differences)

64
Q

What does mentoring involve?

A

Demonstration, instruction, challenge, and encouragement over a period of time. Develop bond of commitment, and youth develops a sense of respect and identification with the mentor.

65
Q

What are 2 kinds of mentorship settings?

A

1) natural mentoring
(existing relationships)
2) mentoring programmes
(formal arrangements)

66
Q

Which kind of mentor is the best predictor of educational attainment?

A

teacher mentor

67
Q

How to make mentoring relationships more effective?

A

Careful selection and pairing of mentors and mentees.

68
Q

Why do Asian students perform better than American students at math and science? (6)

A

1) teachers spent more time teaching math
2) American parents had lower expectations
3) American parents more likely to attribute child’s math achievement to innate ability. Asian parents more likely to to attribute it to effort and training.
4) Asian parents more likely to help children with their math homework
5) Asian mothers exerted more psychological control over their children
6) Chinese mothers’ self worth more contingent on child’s achievement. “Tiger parents”

69
Q

Obstacles to motivation can arise when individuals…. (4)

A

1) procrastinate
2) are too perfectionistic
3) are overwhelmed by anxiety
4) try to protect their self-worth by avoiding failure

70
Q

What are some of the reasons people procrastinate? (6)

A
  • poor time management
  • difficulty in concentrating
  • fear and anxiety (overwhelmed by task and afraid of getting a bad grade)
  • personal problems (financial difficulties, relationship problems)
  • unrealistic expectations and perfectionism
  • fear of failure.
71
Q

What are some forms of procrastination? (5)

A
  • ignore the task and hope it goes away
    2) underestimating the work involved in the task and leaving it to the last minute
    3) deceiving yourself that a poor performance is acceptable
    4) substituting a lower-priority activity (eg. clean your room instead of studying for a test)
    5) persevering on only a part of the task (eg. write and rewrite the first para but never get to the body of it)
72
Q

What are some ways to tackle procrastination? (4)

A

1) acknowledge that procrastination is a problem
2) work on time management – make yearly, monthly, weekly, and daily plans. monitor how you are using time so you can use it more wisely
3) divide the task into smaller parts - set subgoals
4) identify distractions and when and where you engage in them. plan how to diminish and control them. reward systems.
5) use cognitive strategies (watch out for self brainwashing)

73
Q

Describe the tendencies of perfectionists.

A

Perfectionists tend to set excessively high, unrealistic goals that can’t be reached. When they don’t reach their goals, they become very self-critical and perceive themselves as worthless. Such thoughts can produce high anxiety that can interfere with their ability to concentrate and think clearly in achievement contexts.

74
Q

What should perfectionists do instead?

A

Set realistic and attainable goals that they generate for themselves, rather than strive to meet the unrealistic standards set by others. Recognise that everyone makes mistakes and a key aspect of achievement is learning from your mistakes.

75
Q

Why does anxiety increase across schooling years for adolescence?

A

Because they face more frequent evaluation, social comparison, and experiences of failure

76
Q

How do parental expectations affect adolescents’ anxiety?

A

Unrealistic parental achievement expectations and pressure, as well as parents’ perfectionism can lead to higher anxiety level in children/adolescents.

77
Q

What are some self-handicapping strategies adolescents use to avoid failure? (3)

A

1) nonperformance - not trying at all
2) procrastination - postpone studying until the last minute so they can blame failure on poor time management rather than their own incompetence
3) setting unrealistic goals - so high that success if virtually impossible so they can avoid the implication that they are incompetent because virtually everyone would fail to reach these goals

78
Q

What are 3 strategies adolescents can take to avoid self-handicapping?

A
  • set challenging but realistic goals
  • strengthen link between effort and self worth. minimise social comparison
  • have positive beliefs about own abilities.

PL3244 (12 decks)

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