7 Flashcards
What are the different types of bone cells?
Osteoprogenitor cells: stem cells that give rise to osteoblasts
Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells that synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and other organic components of bone matrix
Osteocytes: mature bone cells that maintain the bone tissue
Osteoclasts: bone-dissolving cells that break down bone tissue and release minerals into the blood
What is the composition of bone matrix?
Organic components: collagen fibers and other proteins that provide flexibility and tensile strength
Inorganic components: hydroxyapatite crystals made of calcium phosphate that provide hardness and compressional strength
What are the two types of bone tissue?
Compact bone: dense and solid, found in the diaphysis of long bones and on the outer surface of all bones
Spongy (cancellous) bone: porous and filled with red bone marrow, found in the epiphysis of long bones and the interior of all other bones
What are the different types of bone fractures?
Closed (simple) fracture: the bone is broken but does not penetrate the skin
Open (compound) fracture: the bone is broken and penetrates the skin
Comminuted fracture: the bone is shattered into multiple pieces
Greenstick fracture: the bone is bent and only partially broken
Spiral fracture: the bone is twisted, resulting in a ragged break
Depressed fracture: the bone is crushed inward, usually in the skull
What are the steps of bone repair?
Hematoma formation: blood vessels in the bone and surrounding tissue break, forming a blood clot (hematoma)
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation: fibroblasts and chondroblasts migrate to the fracture site and produce a fibrocartilage callus to bridge the broken ends of the bone
Bony callus formation: osteoblasts secrete a bony collar around the fibrocartilage callus, creating a hard callus
Bone remodeling: excess bone tissue is removed and compact bone replaces spongy bone, restoring the original shape and strength of the bone
What factors affect bone growth and remodeling?
Nutrition: calcium, vitamin D, and other nutrients are essential for bone growth and remodeling
Hormones: growth hormone, thyroid hormone, sex hormones, and parathyroid hormone all play important roles in bone growth and remodeling
Physical stress: weight-bearing exercise and mechanical stress stimulate bone growth and remodeling
Aging: bone mass and strength decrease with age, particularly in women after menopause
What are the three general classes of joints based on their structure?
Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
What is a synarthrosis joint?
A synarthrosis joint is an immovable joint. It is typically composed of fibrous tissue and is found where bones have grown together to form sutures.
What is an amphiarthrosis joint?
An amphiarthrosis joint is a slightly movable joint. It is typically composed of cartilage and is found in joints that provide some movement but offer more stability than mobility.
What is a diarthrosis joint?
A diarthrosis joint is a freely movable joint. It is typically composed of synovial tissue and includes most joints of the body.
What is a synovial joint?
A synovial joint is a joint in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity. It is the most common type of joint in the body and provides the greatest range of motion.
What are the six types of synovial joints?
Plane joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Condylar joint
Saddle joint
Ball-and-socket joint
What are the functions of synovial fluid?
Lubrication of joint surfaces
Nutrient distribution to cartilage
Shock absorption
What is the role of bursae and tendon sheaths in synovial joints?
Bursae and tendon sheaths are synovial membrane-lined structures that cushion or protect tendons as they pass over bony prominences or between muscles.
What are the three main types of joint movements?
Angular movements (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction)
Rotation (medial rotation, lateral rotation)
Special movements (elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion)
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments?
Intrinsic ligaments are located within the joint capsule and are part of the joint itself. Extrinsic ligaments are located outside of the joint capsule and connect bones to each other.
What is the axial skeleton?
The axial skeleton is the portion of the skeleton that consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
What is the appendicular skeleton?
The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton that consists of the upper and lower limbs, the shoulder girdle, and the hip girdle.
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
The functions of the skeletal system include support, protection, movement, storage of minerals and fat, and blood cell production.
What are the different types of bones?
The different types of bones include long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones.
What are the parts of a long bone?
The parts of a long bone include the diaphysis, epiphyses, articular cartilage, periosteum, medullary cavity, and endosteum.
What is the diaphysis?
The diaphysis is the shaft or long, cylindrical part of a long bone.
What are the epiphyses?
The epiphyses are the rounded ends of a long bone that articulate with other bones.
What is articular cartilage?
Articular cartilage is a layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articular surface of bones.
What is the periosteum?
The periosteum is a dense layer of connective tissue that covers the outer surface of bones.
What is the medullary cavity?
The medullary cavity is a hollow cavity within the diaphysis that contains bone marrow.
What is the endosteum?
The endosteum is a thin layer of connective tissue that lines the medullary cavity and the spaces within spongy bone.
What is ossification?
Ossification is the process of bone formation, which involves the deposition of calcium salts and other minerals onto a collagenous matrix.
What are the two types of ossification?
The two types of ossification are intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
What is intramembranous ossification?
Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone formation that occurs directly within a membrane of connective tissue.
What is endochondral ossification?
Endochondral ossification is the process of bone formation that occurs within a cartilage model.
What is bone tissue composed of?
Bone tissue is composed of cells, extracellular matrix, and mineral salts.
What are the cells in bone tissue?
The cells in bone tissue include osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
What is the extracellular matrix in bone tissue composed of?
The extracellular matrix in bone tissue is composed of collagen fibers and ground substance, which includes proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
What is the function of osteoblasts?
Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells that produce and secrete collagen fibers and ground substance, which eventually become mineralized to form bone tissue.
What is the function of osteocytes?
Osteocytes are mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue by exchanging nutrients and waste products with blood vessels.
What is the function of osteoclasts?
Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells that break down and reabsorb bone tissue, releasing calcium and other minerals into the bloodstream.
What is the process of bone remodelling?
Bone remodelling is the continuous process of bone resorption by osteoclasts followed by bone deposition by osteoblasts.
What hormones regulate bone remodelling?
Hormones such as parathyroid hormone and calcitonin regulate bone remodeling by regulating the activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
What is the importance of calcium in bone tissue?
Calcium is an important mineral component of bone tissue that provides strength and rigidity.
How does exercise affect bone tissue?
Exercise stimulates bone tissue to become stronger and denser by increasing the activity of osteoblasts and enhancing bone remodeling.
What is the function of the cerebellum?
The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating and regulating motor movements, including posture, balance, and coordination.
What is ataxia?
Ataxia is a condition characterized by uncoordinated and jerky movements, often caused by damage to the cerebellum.
What is the function of the brainstem?
The brainstem is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
What is the reticular formation?
The reticular formation is a network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a key role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and arousal.
What is the function of the thalamus?
The thalamus acts as a relay center for sensory information, relaying information to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex.
What is the limbic system?
The limbic system is a group of structures in the brain involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.
What is the hippocampus?
The hippocampus is a structure in the limbic system that plays a key role in the formation and consolidation of new memories.
What is the amygdala?
The amygdala is a structure in the limbic system involved in the processing of emotions, particularly fear.
What is the hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus is a structure in the brain responsible for regulating homeostasis, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone release.
What is the blood-brain barrier?
The blood-brain barrier is a specialized system of cells and proteins that prevents many substances from entering the brain, protecting the brain from harmful substances and maintaining a stable internal environment.
What is the function of the parathyroid hormone?
The parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates blood calcium levels by increasing the activity of osteoclasts, promoting the reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys, and stimulating the production of vitamin D in the kidneys.
What is hypoparathyroidism?
Hypoparathyroidism is a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce too little PTH, resulting in low blood calcium levels.
What is hyperparathyroidism?
Hyperparathyroidism is a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce too much PTH, resulting in high blood calcium levels.
What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?
Symptoms of hypoparathyroidism may include muscle cramps, twitching, and spasms, as well as numbness and tingling in the fingers, toes, and lips. Severe cases may also lead to seizures, convulsions, and respiratory failure.
What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?
Symptoms of hyperparathyroidism may include fatigue, weakness, nausea, constipation, and increased thirst and urination. Over time, high blood calcium levels can also lead to bone loss, kidney stones, and heart and brain damage.
How is hypoparathyroidism treated?
Hypoparathyroidism is typically treated with calcium and vitamin D supplements to raise blood calcium levels, as well as medication to reduce phosphate levels in the blood.
How is hyperparathyroidism treated?
Treatment for hyperparathyroidism depends on the cause and severity of the condition, but may include surgical removal of the parathyroid glands, medication to lower blood calcium levels, and dietary changes to reduce calcium intake.
What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone density and strength decrease, making bones fragile and more likely to fracture. It is often associated with aging, but can also result from hormonal imbalances or medication use.
What are the risk factors for osteoporosis?
Risk factors for osteoporosis include age, gender (women are at higher risk), family history, low body weight or BMI, lack of exercise, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and certain medical conditions or medication use.
How is osteoporosis treated?
Treatment for osteoporosis typically involves lifestyle changes such as exercise and diet modifications, as well as medication to slow or prevent bone loss and promote bone growth.
What is the function of the pineal gland?
The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which helps regulate circadian rhythms.
What is the location of the pineal gland?
The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located in the epithalamus of the brain.
What is the function of melatonin?
Melatonin helps regulate circadian rhythms, including sleep-wake cycles, and has also been implicated in other physiological processes such as immune function and aging.
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine glands secrete their products through ducts onto body surfaces or into body cavities.
Name three types of stimuli that can activate endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including hormonal, neural, and humoral stimuli.
What is a tropic hormone?
A tropic hormone is a hormone that stimulates the secretion of another hormone by a target endocrine gland.
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
The hypothalamus produces and secretes several hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland, as well as controlling other endocrine functions such as the release of hormones from the adrenal gland.
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolic rate and protein synthesis, as well as playing a role in growth and development.
What is the location of the thyroid gland?
The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just below the larynx and anterior to the trachea.
What is the role of calcitonin?
Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland that helps regulate calcium levels in the blood by promoting the uptake of calcium into bones.
What is the function of the respiratory system?
The respiratory system’s primary function is to supply oxygen to the body’s cells while removing carbon dioxide.
What are the three processes of respiration?
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing), external respiration (exchange of gases between lungs and blood), and internal respiration (exchange of gases between blood and body tissues).
What is the difference between the conducting zone and respiratory zone of the respiratory system?
The conducting zone includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, and its function is to filter, warm, and moisten incoming air while conducting it to the respiratory zone. The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
What is the role of mucus in the respiratory system?
Mucus traps debris and pathogens in the respiratory system, preventing them from entering the lungs.
What are the two types of cells found in the alveoli?
Type I alveolar cells, which make up the wall of the alveoli, and type II alveolar cells, which secrete surfactant to prevent the alveoli from collapsing.
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to the body’s tissues.
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions.
What is the role of the respiratory centers in the brain?
The respiratory centers in the brain regulate the rate and depth of breathing to maintain homeostasis of blood gases, primarily carbon dioxide.
What is the function of the cochlea?
The cochlea is responsible for hearing.
What is the function of the semicircular canals?
The semicircular canals are responsible for balance.
What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium?
Static equilibrium is when the head and body are still, while dynamic equilibrium is when the head and body are in motion.
What is the role of the maculae in the vestibule?
The maculae are responsible for detecting changes in the position of the head.
What are the three layers of the eye?
The three layers of the eye are the outer fibrous layer, the middle vascular layer, and the inner neural layer.
What is the function of the rods and cones in the retina?
Rods are responsible for vision in dim light, while cones are responsible for color vision and visual acuity.
What is the function of the iris?
The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
What is the function of the lens?
The lens refracts and focuses light onto the retina.
What is the role of the ciliary muscle in the eye?
The ciliary muscle adjusts the shape of the lens to help focus light onto the retina.
What is the blind spot in the eye?
The blind spot is the area of the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye and there are no photoreceptors.
What is the skull and how many bones does it consist of?
The skull is the body’s most complex bony structure, which is formed by cranial and facial bones, 22 in all.
Describe the functions of the cranial bones
The cranial bones enclose and protect the brain
They provide attachment sites for head and neck muscles
List the 8 cranial bones
Frontal bone
Parietal bones (2)
Temporal bones (2)
Occipital bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
List the 14 facial bones
Nasal bones (2)
Maxillae (2)
Zygomatic bones (2)
Lacrimal bones (2)
Palatine bones (2)
Inferior nasal conchae (2)
Vomer bone
Mandible
Define sutures and their function
Sutures are interlocking joints between skull bones
They are mostly immovable and provide a strong, rigid structure to protect the brain
Name and describe the four major skull sutures
Coronal suture: connects the frontal bone to the parietal bones
Sagittal suture: connects the two parietal bones
Squamous suture: connects the parietal and temporal bones
Lambdoid suture: connects the parietal bones to the occipital bone
Define and describe the cranial vault and cranial base
The cranial vault is the part of the skull that forms the superior, lateral, and posterior aspects of the skull, as well as the forehead
The cranial base forms the inferior aspect of the skull and is divided into three fossae (anterior, middle, and posterior) that cradle the brain