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HL Biology > 6. Human Physiology > Flashcards

6. Human Physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

6.1 Bile makeup

A

Contains bile salts
- interact with fat globules and divide them into smaller droplets

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2
Q

6.1 Stomache acid makeup

A
  • releases digestive acids to create low pH to denature protiens
    + pepsin enzyme
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3
Q

6.1 What is peristalsis?

A

Muscle contractions along digestive tract

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4
Q

6.1 What is the iluem?

A

The final and largest section of the small intestine

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5
Q

6.1 Small intestine vs large intestine

A

Small intestine: usable food substances: monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins

Large intenstine: water and disolved minerals

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6
Q

6.1 Draw the structure of the iluem

A
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7
Q

6.1 Draw the digestive system including descriptions

A

Salvitory Glands: moistion, begin carbohydrate digestion ( amylase )

Esophogus: Transport food via peristalsis

Stomache: Store and churn food, begin protien digestion (protease)

Pancreas: Release digestive enzymes, release hormones

Gall bladder: Store/secrete bile

Liver: Detoxify, stores vitamins, Iron, gylcogen, syntesizes bile

Small I: Absorbs nutrients

Large I: Absorbs water and ions

Rectum: Release of waste

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8
Q

6.1 Types of intenstine muscle contraction

A

Circular: Contraction behind food to prevent backward movement

Longitudinal: Pushes food along

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9
Q

6.1 Peristalsis in stomache vs intestine

A

Stomache: One pulse from esophogus to stomache

Esophagus: slow, mix with enzymes

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10
Q

6.1 Glands of pancreas

A

The pancreas has two gland tissues, exocrine (main) for enzymes and endocrine (smaller) for hormones.

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11
Q

6.1 Enzymes of pancreas

A

Lipase
Amylase
Protease

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12
Q

6.1 Structure of villus epithelial cells

A

Tight junctions between cells
Microvilli
More mitochondria
Pinocytotic vesicles

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13
Q

6.1 What is the structure of intestional villi?

A

Microvilli
Dense capillary network
Single layer epithelium
Lacteal -absorbs lipids into lymphatic system
Inteestinal glands (exocrine pits) release digestive juices
Membrane protiens

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14
Q

6.1 What do intestional villi absorb?

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose
Any A-acids
Fatty acids, monoglycerodes + glycerol
Bases from nucleotides
Mineral ions

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15
Q

6.1 What are the two way the pancreas breaks down starch?

A

Exocrine: Amylase from acinar cells

Endocrine: Hormones

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16
Q

6.1 What is the duodenum?

A

First section of teh S.I which is fed by pancreas and gall bladder

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17
Q

6.2 What is atheroscelrosis?

A

The build up of fat deposits in coronary arteries

Plaques are created form fat buildup, if these rupter clots form a thrombus

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18
Q

6.1 Where does starch get broken down?

A

Starts in mouth w/ saliva, not in stomache pH bad, then gets broken down in intestine w/ amylase

Amylose –> maltose
Amylopectin –> dextrins

Both these disaccharides get broken down by maltase fixed to the epithelial lining of the small intestine

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19
Q

6.1 Methods of absorption for the villi

A

1) NA+ and glucose/amino acids cotransported
2) Triglycerides are broken into fatty acids + monoglyceride which simple diffuse,

Everything diffuses out (monosaccharides facilitated) into capillary, lipids into lacteal

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20
Q

6.2 Types of tissue in arteries

A

Elastic: Contains elastic fibers which store energy at peak stretch, recoil sends blood down artery

Muscular tissue: determines diameter of lumen

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21
Q

6.2 Structure of artery (description)

A

Lumen
Tunica Interna
Tunica Media
Tunica externa

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22
Q

6.2 Blood pressure terms

A

Systolic = peak pressure
Diastolic = resting

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23
Q

6.2 What are capillaries?

A

Narrowest blood vessels
Form extensive networks
Bring blood to almost all tissues

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24
Q

6.2 Capillary structure

A

Wall = thin endotheliym cells covered in fliter like protien

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25
Q

6.2 How does exchange with capillaries work?

A

The permeability of the wall allows part of the plasma to leak out and become tissue fluid. This flows between cells allowing absorption and excretion of waste before it is reabsorped

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26
Q

6.2 Plasma vs Tissue Fluid

A

Plasma: fluid around red blood cells

Tissue fluid: O2, glucose, other substances (not protiens, too big)

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27
Q

6.2 Vein purpose

A

Collect blood at low pressure to go back to heart, not thick walls and valves

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28
Q

6.2 Circulation of blood

A

Systematic circulation: pumps oxygenated blood around body

Pulmonary Circulation: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs

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29
Q

6.2 Draw a heart

A
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30
Q

6.2 Heart valves

A

Tri Me PA

Atrioventricular (AV): Tricuspid (right) , mitral

Semilunar (SL)
Pulminary (right), aortic

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31
Q

6.2 Path of pulmonary circulation

A

Superior vena cava –> right atrium –> AV valve –> right ventricle (also inferior vena cava enters to ventricle) –> SL valve –> pulmonary artery

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32
Q

6.2 Path of systematic circulation

A

Pulmonary vein –> left atrium –> AV valve – left ventricle –> SL valve –> aorta

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33
Q

6.2 Cardiac cycle

A

0-0.1: Atria contracts pushing open AV valves

0.1-0.15: Ventricle contracts, closing AV valves

0.15-0.4: Pressure increases in ventricle pushing open sumilunar valves

0.4-0.45: ventricle relaxes, SL valve closes

0.45-0.8 pressure drops, AV valves open

34
Q

6.2 Heart beat sound

A

Caused by AV valves
Lub - close
Dub - open

35
Q

6.2 Heartbeat pacemaker

A

Sinoatrial node is a group of speciliazed muscle cells that kicks off a wave of depolarization first in atria
Then 0.1 secs later in vetricles

36
Q

6.2 Control of heartrate by brain

A

The cardiovascular center in the medulla has two branches of nerves.
- One increases pase
- The other decreases

Indicators:
Low blood pr, low O, low pH = need speed up

High that stuff = slow down

Epinephrine: hormone that increases pace, from adrenal glands

37
Q

6.3 Surface barriers of defense

A

Skin: Extneral structures
tough physical barrer, mostly dead skin cells, sebacious glands secrete sebum (lowers skin pH, inhibits growth)

Mucuous membranes: Internal structures that are externally accesable
traps pathogens, antibacterial enzyme - lysozume

38
Q

6.3 Clotting process

A

1) Platelets (cellular fragments) form temperary plug
2) Platelets release clotting factor
3) This triggers conversion of prothrombin into thrombin
4) Thrombin converts fibrogen into insoluble fibrin
5) Fibrin forms mesh around plug and traps blood cells that harden
6) When damage is repaired, plasmin (enzyme) disolves clot

39
Q

6.3 Coronary Thrombosis

A

Formation of clot within coronary arteries (blood vessels that sustain heart)

Form when vessels are damaged as a result of cholestoral deposits (atherosclerosis) ruptering

40
Q

6.3 Role of Phagocytes

A

Phagocytes are part of the non-specific innate immune system

Phagocytic leukocytes (white blood cells) circulate blood and move through body tissue. Leukocytes are drawn by the release of histamines

Through phagocytosis pathogens are englufed (endocytosis) and the vesciel is fused to a lysosome.

Antigens may be presented

41
Q

6.3 Types of Leukocytes (white blood cells)

A

Neutrophils: majority of white blood cells, phagocytosis
- unable to renew lysosome, become pus
ex: police

Eosinophils: prominent at allergic reactions and parasitic infection (common in mucus, not blood)
- release chemicals to perforate cells
ex: pest control

Basophil: mainly responsible for initiating inflamattory response by releasing histamine
- Similar to mast cells but circulate in bloodstream
ex: Fireman

Monocyte: share phagocytosis duties, slower but longer lasting
Will differentiate into two types of cells in response to infection

-Macrophage: remain in tissue and phagocytosis, riot police
-Dendritic cell: present antigen fragments to lymphocytes

Lymphocyte: antibody production
- B Cells (plasma + memory)
- T Cells (helper, cytotoxic)

ex: superheros

42
Q

6.3 Role of antibiotics

A

Target bacterial DNA replication, transcription, translation, ribosome function and cell wall formation
- Mainly discovered in saprotrophic fungi

43
Q

6.3 Antibiotics and viruses

A

Viruses have no metabolic processes no antibiotics do nothing

44
Q

6.3 Development of antibioirc resistance

A

Process:
Natural selection, fast reproduction, horizontal gene transfer (plasmids)

Factors:
Over prescription, no presciption use (over the conter), common in hospitals

45
Q

6.4 Draw a diagram of alveoulus and adjacent capillaries

A
46
Q

6.4 Types of pneumocytes

A

Type 1: Most cells in epithelium are type 1

Type 2: Secrete solution to keep alveoli moist
- form monolayer (similar to phospholipids) on surface of wet alveoli
- Reduces surface tension and prevents water escaping

47
Q

6.4 Draw a diagram of alveoli

A
48
Q

6.4 Process of inspiration

A

Primary muscles: Diaphragm and external intercostal

Diaphragm contracts, becoming flat and increasing volume of thoracic cavity

External intercostals contract, pulling ribs up and out

49
Q

6.4 Process of expiration

A

Primary muscles: abdominal and internal intercostals

Abdominal muscles: As diaphragm relaxes, abs conract and push diaphragm upward

Internal intercostals: pull ribs downward and external muscles relax

50
Q

6.4 Lung cancer

A

Causes:
Smoking, air pollution, infections, genetic predispositions

51
Q

6.4 Emphysema

A

Lung conditinon caused by damage to alveolar walls.
- Leads to loss of elasticity for alveoli which causes abnormal enlargement
- Smaller number of larger air saces = reduced SA

Major cause = smoking

52
Q

6.5 Draw a nueron cell

A
53
Q

6.5 What is the difference between the endocrine and nervous system?

A

Endocrine = hormones

Nervous = nuerons

54
Q

6.5 What are the two types of growth from nueron cells?

A

Dendrites: Short-branched (between other nuerons)

Axons: Elongated

55
Q

6.5 What are myelinated nerve fibers?

A

Some nerve fiber are coated with myelin

Schwann cells grow around nerve fibers, each time they grow a double layer of phoslipid bilayer
- the gap between myelin is called node of Ranvier

56
Q

6.5 Resting potential of a nueron

A

Nuerons not transmitting have a resting potential caused by a natural imbalance

57
Q

6.5 What causes the resting potential of a nueron?

A

Sodium-potassium pump: pumps NA out and K in to maintain charge

K+ ions leak back across faster than Na+

Negatively charged prtoeins inside increase imbalance

58
Q

6.5 Concentration of ions during resting potential

A

More K+ inside, more Na+ outside

3Na, 2K

59
Q

6.5 Stages of action potential

A

Depolarization: Sodium channel opens, Na goes inside, membrane potential becomes positive

Repolarization: Potassium channels open, potassium moves outside (negative again, but opposite with Na inside and K outside)

Refractory Period: Other channels closed, Na+/K+ pump brings K in and pushes Na out

60
Q

6.5 What are nerve impulses?

A

Propogation of action potentials from one end to the other of a nueron

Depolarization triggers neighbors depolarization

61
Q

6.5 What are local currents?

A

Diffusion of Na+ with its depolarized part and non-depolarized neighbor

62
Q

6.5 What are synapses?

A

Junctions between nuerons or nueron and receptor (effector) cells

63
Q

6.5 Steps of transmission at synapses

A

1) Action potential arrives at axon terminal
2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open (because of depolarization)
3) Ca2+ enters presynaptic nueron
4) Ca2+ singals to nuerotransmitter vesicles
5) Vesicles move to membrane and release transmitters via exocytosis
6) Nuerotransmitters bind to receptor
7) Ligand-gated ion channels open
8) Sodium ions diffuse down gradients and cause post-synaptic memrbane to reach threshold potential
9) Depolarization triggered
10) Nuerotrasnmitters broken down and removed

64
Q

6.5 What is acetylcholine?

A

A common nuerotransmitter synthesized in pre-synaptic cell w/ choline (diet) and acetyl (respiration)

Acetylcholine remains for a short time in receptor before acetylcholinesterase breaks it down, choline reabsorbed

65
Q

6.5 What are neonicotinoids?

A

These molecules bind to acetylcholine-receptors and can’t be removed w/ enzyme
- effective insecticide
- toxic to humans

66
Q

6.5 What is the threshold potential

A

Action potentials only happen when threshold potential is reached, voltage-gated sodium channels open then

  • Amount of nuerotransmitted secreted may not be enough to cause threshold potential
  • Typical post synaptic nueron has multiple synapses, may require several nuerotransmitter releases
67
Q

6.6 How are glucagon and insulin secreted?

A

From pancreatic pits called islets of Langerhans

Insulin comes from beta cells
Glucagon from ALpha cells

68
Q

6.6 Type 1 vs Type 2 Diabetes

A

Types 1: Body fails to produce insulin, treated with injections

Type 2: Failing to respond to insulin production, monitoring dietary intake

69
Q

6.6 What is thyroxin and how is it secreted

A

Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland in hypothalamus
- increases basal metabolic rate

Needs iodine, defficency is bad

70
Q

6.6 What is leptin and how is it produced?

A

Leptid is produced by adipose cells and it supresses appetite

71
Q

6.6 What is melatonin and how is it produced?

A

Produced by pineal gland, light exposire inhibits melatonin secretion

72
Q

6.6 How is male sex determined?

A

On the Y chromosome the SRY gene codes for TDF which causes development of testes, these produce testosterone to further dedvelopment

73
Q

6.6 How is female sex determined?

A

In absence of SRY, ovaries will develop instead and those will secrete estrogen and progesterone

74
Q

6.6 Draw the male reproductive system

A
75
Q

6.6 Draw the female reproductive system

A
76
Q

6.6 What is FSH, where is it produced and when?

A

Produced by anterior pituitary gland
- stimulates follicular growth
- stimulates estrogen secretion

Peaks right before ovulation / less than LH

77
Q

6.6 What is LH?

A
  • surge causes ovulation
  • results in formation of corpus luteum

Anterior pituitary

Surges high at ovulation

78
Q

6.6 Purpose of estrogen

A

Secreted by ovaries
- thickens endometrium
- inhibits FSH and LG
- stimulates FSH and LH pre ovulation

Rises over follicle cycle, peaks at ovulation, high during luteal

79
Q

6.6 Purpose of progesterone

A

Thickins endometrium
Inhibits FSH and LH
Anterior pituitary

Highest at luteal phase

80
Q

6.6 What two hormones is the posterior pituitary gland responsible for?

A

ADH
Oxytocin

HL Biology (11 decks)

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