Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

HL Biology > 11. Animal Physiology > Flashcards

11. Animal Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

11.1 What are the steps of the immune response (antibody production)?

A

1) Pathogens are ingested by macrophages, antigens are absorbed and displayed
2) T-cells w/ specific receptors bind to antigens and activate
3) Helper T-cells bind to antigen specific B-cells and signal with the release of protiens
4) Activated B-cells undergo mitosis, producing a large number of plasma cells, but also some memory cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

11.1 What is a plasma cell?

A

Plasma cells are mature B-lymphocytes.
-Expanisve RER to produce a lot of antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

11.1 What are antigens?

A

Every organism has unique molecules on their cell’s surface
- Most common = protiens + polysaccharides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

11.1 Antibody modes of destruction

A

P - recipitation: soluble pathogens become insoluble
A: gglugation: Links cell-bound antigens together causing clumping
N: uetralisation: covers dangerous parts
I: nflamation: Triggers histamine release
C: Complement activation: complement protiens perforate cell (lysis)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

11.1 What are histamines?

A

Histamines dialate blood cells to allow more fluid w/ immune components
- Mast cells secrete this

Effects: Allergy response

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

11.1 What are mast cells?

A

Immune cells in connective tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

11.1 What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Highly specific, pure antibodies
- produced by hybridoma cells
- used as treatment + diagnosis of diseases

EX: hCG antibodies for pregnancy test

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

11.1 How are hybridoma cells produced?

A

1) A mouse is injected with an antigen and produces plasma cells
2) The plasma cells are fused with myeloma cells (tumor cells)
3) The resulting cell is the hydbridoma cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

11.1 What are myeloma cells?

A

Cancer plasma cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

11.2 What is the purpose of bones and exoskeletons?

A

Provide anchorage for muscles and act as levers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

11.2 Lever diagram parts

A

F: Fulcrum, (triangle)
R: Resultant Force
E: Effort

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

11.2 What are the three types of movement levers

A

First Class: Traditional lever

Second Class: R + E are on the same side (E is furthest), F on opposent

Third Class: R+ E on same side (E closer to middle), F on opposet

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

11.2 What are synovial joints?

A

Joints that surrond the surface of two bones, they allow certain movement but not others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

11.2 Six types of sinovial joints ( in order of mobility)

A

Plane joints
ex: between tarsal bones of foot

Hinge Joints
ex: elbow

Pivot Joint
ex: vertebrae

Condyloid
ex: wrist (radius + carpal)

Saddle
ex: Base of thumb

Ball and socket:
ex: Hip

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

11.2 Logistics of skeletal muscles

A

These work in antagonistic pairs, where one contracts and one extends

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

11.2 Draw a human elbow joint

A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

11.2 What is the microstructure of muscle fibers?

A

Bundles of myofibrils (muscles cells) are surronded with a sacrolemma with a sarcoplasmic reticulum wrapping around all fibrils
- there are extra nuclei and mitochondria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

11.2 Structure of a myofibril

A

Myofibrils are composed of units called sacromere:

Each sacromere spans the length between z-lines.

There is a light band of actin and the dark band of myosin in the middle

Each thick myosin is surronded by six thin actin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

11.2 Draw a sacromere

A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

11.2 Mechanism of muscle contraction

A

Mysoin heads bind to sites on actin and cause cross-briging
-using ATP they exert force and the actine slides along which shorterns the sacromere

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

11.2 What controls muscle contraction

A

Relaxed muscle: Tropomysosin blocks binding site on actine

  • When motor nueron signals, sacroplastic reticulum releases calcium
  • Calcium binds to troponin which causes tropomyosin to move
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

11.2 Role of ATP in muscle contraction

A

1) Myosin head attaches to actin binding site forming cross-bridge

2) ATP binds to head, causing detachment

3)ATP is hydrolysed into ADP + P causing myosin head to shift

4) Head attaches to new binding site

5) ADP+P are released causing head to move back to original positi, sliding actin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

11.3 Draw a kidney

A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

11.3 Osmoregulator vs osmoconformer

A

Osmoregular: maintain constant internal solute concentration
- all terestrial, freshwater
- some marine

Osmoconformer: internal = external

25
Q

11.3 What is the malphighian tubule system?

A

Instead of blood, arthropods have hemolymph.
The malphighne tubules branch off from nisect intestine tract

1) Ulric acid, Na, K are transported into tubules, H2O follows (osmosis)

2) Tubules empty into gut

3) Some ions are actively reabsorbed in hindgut + water

4) Dehydrated uric paste is released

26
Q

11.3 Renal artery vs renal vein

A

Renal artery: brings in unfiltered blood, renal vein = filtered

Renal artery blood:
- higher in toxins and substances ingest + absorbed, not metabolized (drugs)
- Waste products (urea)

Non excretory:
excess water + salt

27
Q

11.3 What is a nephron?

A

The filtering unit of the kidney

28
Q

11.3 Describe the structure of the glomerulus.

A

The glomerulus is a tiny cluster of looping blood vessels surronded by bowman’s capsule, which is connected to the proximal tubule.
- Afferent arteriole = enterance
- Efferient arteriole = exit

The capillary wall is fenestrated with gaps between cells

The capillary is surronded by a basemented membrane covering podocytes.

29
Q

11.3 Purpose of the glomerulus

A

Capillary pressure and wall permeability allow fluid to be pushed out (glomerular filtrate)

Most solutes are filtered freely. except protiens (ultrafiltration)

30
Q

11.3 What is the basement membrane’s structure?

A

It covers the capillary wall, made of negative glycoprotiens which prevents plasma protiens filtering out

31
Q

11.3 What are podocytes?

A

Specialized epithelial cells . They have extensions that wrap around capillaries and short branches called foot processes

32
Q

11.3 Endothelial vs epithelial cells

A

Endothelial: line internatl pathways

Epithelial: Lines outside

33
Q

11.3 What does the proximal convoluted tubule absorb?

A

Na
Cl
Glucose
Water

34
Q

11.3 Structure of the loop of henle/vasa recta + connections

A

Proximal tubule –> descending limb –> ascending limb –> distal tubule –> collecting duct

Capillary flows opposite (still goes away from bowmans capsul but descending capillary is next to ascending limb)

35
Q

11.3 Gradient of loop of henle

A

The mOsM at the top (cortex) is about 300, low salt and high water

The mOsM at the bottom is about 1,200 (High salt, low water)

35
Q

11.3 Absorption from the loop of henle

A

The descending limb losses water as the mOsM rises

The ascending limb loses salt as the mOsM lowers (Na, Cl)

36
Q

11.3 Purpose of the loop of henle

A

Maintains hypertonic conditions of medulla

Water and salt follow conditions of gradient in medulla (vasa recta collects released products to maintain gradient, even with release)

37
Q

11.3 Length of loop of Henle

A

longer loop = more water reabsorbed

38
Q

11.3 Purpose of ADH

A

ADH controls the amount of water reabsorbed

  • Released by posterier pituitary when dehydrated (sensed by osmoreceptors in hypthalamus, when blood mOsM is too high)
  • Increased permeability of collecting duct walls which leads to less water in the filtrate
39
Q

11.3 Release of nitrogeneous waste

A

When animals break down amino acids, ammonia is produced which can alter pH balance

Freshwater/marine: direct release

Terrestrial: convert into less toxic urea

40
Q

11.4 Describe process of oogenesis

A

Starts in ovaries of female fetus

1) Germ cells in ovaries divide via mitosis and distribute throughout cortex

2) When they are large enough to undero meiosis, which they begin but stop in prophase 1 when follicle cells surrond them

41
Q

11.4 Primary follicle vs secondary follicle

A

Primary: initial meiosis cell + follicle cell

Secondary: stimulated by FSH @ menstration

42
Q

11.4 Oogenesis during menstration

A

1) FSH triggers continued division of some primary follicles, this creates unequal size cells
2) One cell becomes the secondary oocyte, the other a polar body. The secondary begins the second meiotic division byt stops in metaphase 2
3) The secondary oocyte is released from the ovary during ovulation, ruptured follicle becomes corpus lutuem, and enters the follopian tube
4) If fertilization occurs, mesosis 2 will complete (other polar body forms) and egg forms an ovum before forming a zygote once sperm nucleus is fused

43
Q

11.4 Microstructure of testes

A

Testes are composed of narrow tubes, seminiferous tubules, with small cells in gapas called interstitial cells
- The outer layer of the tubules are germinal epithelium cells : sperm production

44
Q

11.4 Spermatogenesis

A

1) Germial epithelium cells divide endlessly
2) Diploid cells grow into primary spermatocytes
3) Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
4) Produce 2 spermatides (n)
5) Spermatids associate with sertoli cells and develop into spermatozoa
6) Detach

45
Q

11.4 Draw an egg (ovum)

A
46
Q

11.4 Draw a sperm

A
47
Q

11.4 Key differences in gametes

A

Sperm have almost no cytoplasm, egg has increased cytoplasm

During egg meosis, theres a polar body, uneven division

Egg formation happens once per menstration cycle, sperm = contineous

Sperm production begins at puberty, egg production begins prenatal

48
Q

11.4 Types of fertilization

A

External: common with water animals
- susceptible to environmental influences
- Large quantities of gamete released

Internal: typical terrestrial
- more protection, but dependent on parent survival

49
Q

11.4 Process of fertilization

A

Designed to prevent polyspermy

1) Acrosome reaction: The acrosome (sac o’ emzyme) of the sperm attaches to the zona pellucida (coat of glycoprotiens) and digests the coat

2) Penetration of egg membrane:
Now exposed sperm top has protiens to bind to membrane, nucleus enters cell

3) Cortial reaction
Cortial granules (vesicles) release content, in mammals its an enzyme to digest binding protiens. Zona pellucida hardens.

50
Q

11.4 Blastocyte implantation

A

Fertilized ovum divides via mitosis, divisions are unequal and mitigation of cells leads to hollow ball (blastocyte)

(~7 days) reached utures, zona pellucida fully broken down. Sinks into uterus linining. Outer layer develops projections to penetrate

(~8 wks) Embryo –> fetus

51
Q

11.4 What is the placenta?

A

A disc formed from development of fetal tissue that invades uterine wall.

Maternal blood pools into open ended arterioles into intervillous spacees called lacunae.

Placental villi occupy this space with fetal capillaries very close to maternal blood (seperated by placental barrier)

52
Q

11.4 Types of maternal material exchange (types of animals)

A

Placental mammals
Monotremes : eggs
Marsiupials : underdeveloped

53
Q

11.4 Exchange of materials maternal

A

Co2 –> Maternal blood
Fetal blood <– O2
Fetal blood <— glucose
Fetal blood <— antibodies (endocytosis)
Fetal <—Water –> Maternal

54
Q

11.4 Role of hCG

A

hCG is produced by blastocyte, it promotes maintenece of corpus lutuem in ovary and stimulates secretion of progesterone

55
Q

11.4 Corpus Luteum Secretion

A

The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone

56
Q

11.4 Placenta hormone secretion

A

At about 9 wks, the placenta takes over for the corpus luteum.
- danger of miscarrage if fails

57
Q

11.4 Parturition

A

Progesteron inhibits secretion of oxytocin and myometrium contractions (outer wall of uterus)

At end of pregnancy, hormones that inhibit progesterone are secreted
- oxytocin stimulates contract
- stretch receptors increase oxytocin production (positive feedback)
- cervix muscles relax
- amniotic sac breaks

HL Biology (11 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions