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Geography A Level > 5. Migration > Flashcards

5. Migration Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an International Migrant?

A

An International Migrant is a person who permanently moves to a country other than that of his/her usual residence for a period of at least a year (12 months) so that the country of destination effectively becomes his/her new country of local residence.

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2
Q

What is Counter-Urbanisation?

A

Counter-Urbanisation is the movement of people (and/or businesses) from cities back to the countryside for more than a year.

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3
Q

What is Forced Migration?

A

Forced Migration is the movement of people for a period of one year or more which is not by choice.

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4
Q

What is Voluntary Migration?

A

Voluntary Migration is the movement of people for a period of one year or more which is by choice.

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5
Q

What is a Push Factor?

A

A Push Factor is the percieved disadvantages of the origin that encourage the migrant to leave.

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6
Q

What is a Pull Factor?

A

A Pull Factor is the percieved advantages of the destination that encourage the migrant to move.

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7
Q

What is Internal Migration?

A

Internal Migration is the movement of people within a country and not crossing borders for a duration of one year or more.

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8
Q

What is International Migration?

A

International Migration is the movement of people between countries and across borders for a duration of more than a year.

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9
Q

What is Urban-Urban Migration?

A

Urban-Urban Migration is the movement from one town or city to another town or city for one year or more (e.g. from Rio de Janiero to Barra Da Tjucia).

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10
Q

What is Intra-Urban Migration?

A

Intra-Urban Migration is the permanent (more than 1 year) movement of people within an urban area, not commuting.

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11
Q

What is Rural-Urban Migration?

A

Rural-Urban Migration is the movement of people from the countryside to the city for one year or more.

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12
Q

What is Stepped Migration?

A

Stepped Migration is the movement of people for one year or more in a sequence of stages. These stages usually occurr within the settlement hierarchy.

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13
Q

What is Chain Migration?

A

Chain migration is the process by which a small community of people from a source area within another country encourages further migration from that source to the destination country.

This leads to the formation of larger communities within destination countries e.g. Chinatown, NYC

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14
Q

What are the causes of forced migration?

A
  • War / Conflict
  • Persecution
  • Natural disasters
  • Adverse climatic conditions
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15
Q

What are the causes of voluntary migration?

A
  • Low incomes
  • Poor employment
  • Better services elsewhere
  • Family reunification
  • Retirement
  • Better climate
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16
Q

What does Zipf’s Inverse Distance Law suggest?

A

Zipf’s Inverse Distance Law suggests that the number of migrants tends to decrease as the geographical distance to the destination increases - distance decay.

✔ This theory is true for forced migration
✘ Improved communication / transport infrastructure allows migration to further destinations
✘ Does not account for social patterns such as language barriers which may affect trend
✘ Does not include impacts of higher incomes etc. (pull factors)

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17
Q

What does the Torado Model suggest?

A

The Torado Model suggests that economic costs and benefits are the key to explaining an individual’s decision to migrate.

It suggests that migrants might take a short term loss in income in the hope of future gains for themselves and their children.

✔ This theory is generally true for economic migration
✘ Not applicable for forced migration / other motivations for voluntary migration

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18
Q

What does Lee’s Model suggest?

A

Lee’s Model suggests that, where obstacles of migration are too severe to be surmounted in a single movement, migrants may stay at an intervening place to allow them to more gradually move towards a more favourable destination (stepped migration)

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19
Q

What barriers reduce the ability of migrants to move?

A
  • Closing up costs (estate agents to sell your house etc.)
  • Transport costs
  • Physical distance and landscape
  • Human danger along borders (e.g. Bandits in Zimbabwe - South Africa)
  • Government immigration laws (e.g. visas - not always granted)
  • Skills tests requirements for visas (e.g. Canada)
  • Opening up costs (fees for buying a new house)
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20
Q

What are the impacts of migration on source countries?

A
  • Loss of young / skilled workforce - declining birthrate, greater dependent population and ageing population, ‘brain drain’ vs ‘brain gain’
  • Possible return of migrants with new education / skills / training / wealth which may support a country in the long term
  • Family remittances to home country
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21
Q

What are the four types of internal migration?

A
  • Rural to urban migration (usually associated with industrialisation in LICs / MICs)
  • Urban to rural migration (usually in HICs as a result of counterurbanisation)
  • Urban-urban migration
  • Intra-urban migration
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22
Q

How has urbanisation increased in China?

A

Between 1990 and 2022, the percentage of China’s population living in urban areas has increased from 26% to 63%.

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23
Q

How many million rural migrants are estimated to be working in China’s biggest cities?

A

More than 200 million rural migrants

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24
Q

How has the population of Shenzhen increased from 1980 to 2023?

A

1980 = 59,000 people in Shenzhen
2023 = 13,000,000 people

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25
Q

What are Special Economic Zones?

A

SEZs (Special Economic Zones) are areas in which foreign and domestic companies can trade and invest without the same control and regulations from Beijing as in other parts of China.

This was designed to encourage overseas investment in China and boost their economic growth.

The most prominent SEZs (Shenzhen, Xiamen, Shantou and Zhihai) are located on the southern coast where the sea is very accessible allowing for the transportation of goods.

This increasement in investment makes these areas richer, driving rural-urban migration to the coasts.

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26
Q

What are the push factors away from rural areas in China?

A
  • Inland rural areas receive little investment and remain underdeveloped.
  • Harsh living conditions
  • Low wages for drudging manual labour
  • Poor services
  • High unemployment = surplus labour in rural areas due to the end of communal farming / population growth / mechanisation
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27
Q

What are the pull factors towards cities / SEZs in China?

A
  • SEZs receive the most investment and have high living standards / education standards comparable to western countries.
  • Hukou system recently relaxed, allowing people to move.
  • Better employment - higher wages and less drudgery / manual labour.
  • Excitement of city life in comparison to rural areas
  • University / schooling more readily available in urban areas
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28
Q

What is the Hukou system?

A

The Hukou system entitles each person registered to basic services like access to housing, welfare, education, and healthcare but ONLY in the region they are registered in.

If your parents have a rural Hukou, you have a rural Hukou. This reduces the rate of internal migration within China.

This increases discrimination against migrants in terms of access to sustainable housing and services, which is largely based on Hukou services.

29
Q

What are the impacts of rural-urban migration on rural areas in China?

A
  • Dependent population - increasing proportion of old people as the young leave for cities.
  • Loss of workforce - young and working age move to cities (initially more males for construction and manufacturing jobs - more gender balanced today)
  • Remittances sent back to relatives - can be used in rural areas increasing economic growth
30
Q

What are the impacts of rural-urban migration on cities in China?

A
  • Poor working conditions for migrants - discriminated due to incorrect Hukou
  • Discrimination against migrants - reduced access to healthcare, affordable housing and services
  • Not enough housing - too many migrants for not enough houses leads to slum development
  • Economic growth in cities - China’s GDP increased from 2 trillion yuan in 1990 to 18 trillion yuan in 2005
31
Q

What are the pull factors of rural areas in HICs such as the UK?

A
  • Accessible countryside - lots of green space
  • Better value for money with houses (NOT in popular areas e.g Cotswolds)
  • ‘Rural idyll’ - nice architecture, sense of community, less pollution, slower pace of life
  • Convienient - high personal car ownership allows for commutes from rural to urban areas
  • The ability to work remotely has led some people to move towards rural locations
32
Q

What are the push factors of urban areas in HICs such as the UK?

A
  • Pollution - light and noise - air (exhausts) can cause respiratory / health issues
  • High land prices, most apartments / flats only available to rent
  • High levels of traffic and congestion as cities get busier - traffic / rush hours cause lower moods, stress, anxiety
  • Collapse of inner cities and their industries during 70s-90s resulted in large-scale unemployment and environmental degradation - some still remains.
33
Q

Who is moving from cities to rural areas (counterurbanisation)?

A
  • Middle class families (can afford to move)
  • Young families (want a safe place to raise their children)
  • Retirees - no need for jobs in city centres
34
Q

What is filtering?

A

Filtering is the process by which social groups move out of a designated area, which often changes the social nature of an area.

35
Q

How could counterurbanisation forward a cycle of decline within cities?

A
  • People (often the skilled and qualified) leave leaving lower skilled workforce behind
  • Employers find it difficult to recruit new labour
  • Less employment happens and businesses are shut
  • Less money, less employment, and fewer people leads to decline of services in an area due to decreased funds from taxation revenue
  • People notice the decline and lower quality of life.
36
Q

What is suburbanisation?

A

Suburbanisation is the movement of people from the inner / central areas of towns and cities towards to the outskirts / suburbs / rural-urban fringe.

37
Q

What are the negative effects of counterurbanisation on rural areas?

A
  • Conflict between newcomers and preexisting locals can disrupt social harmony
  • Commuters use services in nearby urban area so local village services decline, requiring commutes to cities for services.
  • Many new residents own cars and so drive to work in cities.
  • Preexisting businesses may be outsold to provide accommodation either permanent or rented - disrupts community.
38
Q

What are characteristic patterns of intra-urban migration?

A
  • Young adults move towards the CBD to obtain first jobs, and find a more ‘exciting’ lifestyle with greater services and entertainment
  • Higher value housing can be found further out from the city (suburbanisation)
  • Older people move outwards for more peace and quiet
39
Q

What are the impacts of intra-urban migration?

A

As certain demographics are concentrated within certain areas of urban settlements, this can lead to urban segregation based on factors such as age and income.

  • In times when housing is limited, house prices are driven upwards making it difficult for young families to establish themselves.
  • Areas with higher proportions of old people may present issues such as healthcare
  • Social issues such as crime and burglary can be concentrated within inner city areas with low-income demographics.
40
Q

Where is Barra da Tijuca, when was it built and why?

A

Barra da Tjuca is located on an 18km beach down the coast from Rio de Janiero. It was built in the 1980s as it was only a short distance from Rio and had flat land which would allow for future growth.

41
Q

What is the current population of Barra da Tijuca?
How much of Rio de Janiero does this represent?

A

Around 300,000 people as of 2010.

This neighbourhood represents 4.7% of the city population and 13% of the total area of Rio de Janeiro.

42
Q

What are the push factors away from other Rio bairros?

A
  • Other bairros are very compact and narrow due to the geography of Rio
  • High traffic congestion, especially at rush hour
  • Noise and air pollution from roads
  • High levels of crime - drug abuse and crime are common in favelas
  • Little space for leisure - beach is overcrowded
  • Poor quality of life in other barrios, even for affluent people
43
Q

What are the pull factors towards Barra da Tijuca?

A
  • Good security - less crime, modern apartment complexes have guards on the gates, better place to raise children.
  • Coastal motorway keeps traffic flowing and allows commuting into Rio
  • Great access to services - local shops are available for convenience, larger modern shopping malls provide higher order goods (expensive stuff you don’t need!)
  • Public transport is cheap, clean and efficient
  • City planning = self-contained city (services are nearby)
  • Many service industries based here e.g. Le Monde (bank) so high-level employment is not far
  • Chosen to host many 2016 Olympics venues - more leisure and sport facilities
  • Highest human development index in Brazil (0.970 out of 1)
44
Q

How is violence a push factor away from Syria?

A
  • In March 2011, pro-democracy protests in Daraa turned violent with arrest and torture of teenagers. This triggered nationwide protest demanding Assad’s resignation.
  • Violence escalated and erupted into civil war between rebel and government forces. Fighting reached Damascus and Aleppo by 2012.
  • By June 2013, 90,000 had been killed, rising to 250,000 by 2015.
45
Q

How is low economic growth a push factor away from Syria?

A

The civil war has resulted in very high unemployment and low economic potential.

  • 2010 = Average income per person = $10,000
  • 2015 = Average income per person = $950
46
Q

How is a lack of services a push factor away from Syria?

A
  • 70% of the population is without access to adequate drinking water
  • 1/3 are unable to meet basic food needs
  • 2 million children are out of school
  • 4/5 live in poverty
  • 6.7 million people are internally displaced within Syria, living in camps with poor living conditions
47
Q

How is terrorist activity a push factor away from Syria?

A

The so-called Islamic State has capitalised on the chaos, taking control of large areas of Syria and Iraq, further complicating the resolution of the civil war.

48
Q

How is protection a pull factor towards European countries such as the UK?

A

European countries such as the UK provide protection towards refugees, including language courses, basic education and vocational training.

They also generally have strong welfare systems - in the UK, asylum seekers are entitled to access NHS care and the benefits system - this is usually £35/week during processing, increasing to £72.40 after 3 months.

49
Q

How are personal / cultural ties a pull factor towards European countries such as the UK?

A

Family members may already have migrated to the UK - the war is in its 13th year - chain migration.

50
Q

What are the impacts of migration from Syria on receiving areas?

Most migrants move to their neighbouring countries…

A
  • Lebanon hosts an estimated 1.7m of refugees where 58% of families are living in basic conditions. This places extra pressure on the Lebanese government - $1bn a year
  • The UK home office has had to provide funds to resettle 20000 Syrian migrants in the UK
  • Providing schooling and paying for specialist teachers / bilingual educations creates additional cotsts
  • Pressure placed on border forces to manage illegal migration - only 10% of those leaving Syria come to Europe, most of the 6.6 million refugees move to neighbouring countries such as Turkey / Lebanon (3.6m in Turkey)
  • Settled refugee communities may contribute towards cultural enrichment and diversity
  • Refugees to Europe are often young and of working age, and so contribute to the economy through employment and spending.
51
Q

How many refugees left Syria, and how many are internally displaced?

A

6.6 million refugees from Syria
6.7 internally displaced

52
Q

What barriers are there to migration from Syria to Europe?

A

2015 - 500 people drowned trying to make the crossing from Turkey to Lesbos, Greece

Dependent on criminal gangs / traffickers to make the crossing - prices often US $1000!

Large cultural divide between more conservative Middle East and more liberal Europe

Tourism industry in islands such as Lesbos affected if reputation changes - less likely to accept refugees

53
Q

Who is moving from Mexico to the USA?

A

The highest proportion of migrants from Mexico to the USA are between 20 and 50.
They are more likely to be male than female.

54
Q

Which destinations do migrants from Mexico primarily move towards?

A

Most migrants move towards the southern states on the border such as Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. However, Illinois also has a signficant proportion of Mexican immigrants, driven by chain migration.

This chain migration occurred as Illinois previously had large numbers of low-wage jobs available in industries such as meatpacking which deterred US-born workers, as well as train connections from southern states.

55
Q

Why do migrants primarily move from Mexico to the USA?

A

These immigrants move primarily for economic reasons. However, family-based visas have made chain migration significantly easier.

56
Q

How many migrants move from Mexico to the USA?

A
  • ~25% of legal migration to the USA comes from Mexico
  • In 2022, the number of undocumented immigrant crossings at the southern border topped 2.76 million, breaking previous records.
  • Mexico is the top origin country of the US immigrant population - In 2018 roughly 11.2 million immigrants living in the USA were from Mexico.
57
Q

How are US border defences a barrier for migration?

A

The US-Mexico border is defended, not only with a wall and / or fences in many areas, but also with surveillance technology where no barriers exist, so that Border Patrol agents can be dispatched when suspected migrant crossings are detected.

57
Q

How is the Rio Grande a barrier for migration?

A

The Rio Grande defines the border between Mexico and the USA from El Paso to the Gulf of Mexico and is often the only barrier between the two countries.

However, very strong currents mean that many migrants drown trying to cross it, either by swimming or by boat.

58
Q

How is the Sonoran Desert a barrier for migration?

A

The Sonoran desert is the hottest desert both in the USA and Mexico, and covers the international border in the southwest of the USA.

Migrants either pay to be smuggled or ‘coyoted’ across the desert, or try to cross the desert themselves.

According to Border Patrol, 8,000 migrants have been found dead along the southern border since 1998

59
Q

How is high levels of crime a push factor away from Mexico?

A
  • Homicide rates are higher than 25.2 per 100,000 people versus world average 5.61.
  • Over 45,000 killed in drug-related crime since 2006.
60
Q

How are high levels of poverty a push factor away from Mexico?

A

36% of the population lives under the poverty line - many are agricultural workers where extreme temperatures and water shortage have made agriculture difficult.

61
Q

How is climate change a push factor away from Mexico?

A

Climate change in Mexico may lead to a 40 to 70 percent decline in Mexico’s current cropland suitability by 2030.

Furthermore, more frequent droughts, such as those of 2010-13 and 2022, and natural disasters are expected, threatening Mexico’s already scarce water reserves.

62
Q

How are better services a pull factor towards the USA?

A

The USA has a 99% literacy rate, in comparison to a rate of 86% in Mexico.

63
Q

How are higher wages a pull factor towards the USA?

A

Wages in the USA can be 7x higher than those found in Mexico.

64
Q

How are family connections a pull factor towards the USA?

A

Green card visas can be obtained significantly more easily in the USA if you have family connections to US permanent residents / citizens.

65
Q

What are the social impacts of migration from Mexico on the source area?

A
  • Most migrants from Mexico are men, leaving a high female population behind. This reduces the fertility rate as they are less able to find partners and have children (Catholic).
  • Increasing dependent population, and decreasing number of young people further decreases the fertility rate.
  • Continued chain migration as pioneer migrants send back information to family and friends about job opportunities
66
Q

What are the social impacts from migration from Mexico on the destination area?

A
  • Assimilation is problematic as many Mexicans cannot speak English - studies show that their English skills don’t improve dramatically upon arrival. This occurs when migrants live in closed communities, which can lead to segregation, crime and violence.
  • Concerns that immigrants are increasing crime in areas they migrate to - disrupts social harmony increasing risk of crime.
  • In 2019, 38% of Mexican immigrants had no health insurance
  • Migrant labour during recessions can raise fears that jobs are being taken
  • Introduction of Mexican cultural traditions has helped increase cultural diversity - Mexican food is extremely popular in America: Taco Bell (founded in California) generated 2 billion US$ in revenue in 2020.
67
Q

What are the economic impacts of migration from Mexico on the source area??

A
  • In 2019, more than $38.5 billion in remittances were sent to Mexico via formal channels.
    These remittances represented about 4% of Mexico’s GDP in 2021
    California amounted for over 1/3 of all remittances, 95% of which are sent from the USA.
  • Remittances increase spending on goods and services in Mexico.
  • Pressure on land and social services decreases as people move out from Mexico, but a ‘Brain Drain’ of skilled workers to the USA can create a shortage of skills
68
Q

What are the economic impacts from migration from Mexico on the destination area?

A
  • Cheap migrant labour undercuts wages of low-skilled local population. In 2017, ~21% of Mexican immigrant families were living in poverty.
  • However this is also advantageous as Mexican migrants fill jobs unappealing to locals (but still better paid than jobs in Mexico) - 20% of Mexican migrants employed in construction sector.
  • Increased bilingual teaching at schools develops the future opportunities of both English- and Spanish-speaking students.
  • USA employs 19,600 border agents to monitor US-Mexico border, costing up to $12 billion a year - Mexicans accounted for 51% of the 11 million unauthorised immigrants in 2018.

Geography A Level (32 decks)

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