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APS 209: Animal behaviour > 5: avoiding predation > Flashcards

5: avoiding predation Flashcards

1
Q

what is adaptation? in what 2 ways may it arise?

A

heritable trait that enhances fitness of its bearer

  • by current benefits
  • by past benefits and evolutionary history
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2
Q

is every factor that reduces predation an adaptation against predation?

A

no

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3
Q

list the 3 main ways that not all behaviours/current traits are adaptive

A
  1. trait adaptive to past conditions that no longer exist
  2. trait may be an incidental maladaptive side effect of another adaptation
  3. not yet evolved to a recent change in the environment
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4
Q

why may a trait being adaptive to past conditions make it non-adaptive + 2 examples? (3)

A
  • persists as there is insufficient time/appropriate mutations to prevent the replacement of the trait
  • some arctic moths fly where are no bats but will stop locomotion when exposed to experimental ultrasonic stimulus
  • arctic ground squirrels live where no snakes but if exposed will respond how other squirrel species do that live in the range of predatory snakes
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5
Q

how may a trait being a maladaptive side effect of another adaptation prove to be non adaptive? + examples (4)

A
  • may be genetically linked to another with a selective advantage
  • the drive to care is preferentially for offspring
  • female rodents in communal nests may give milk to offspring that isn’t their own due to strong parental drive
  • stepparents may more likely abuse children even though it reduces their own fitness
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6
Q

what did Kruuk 1964 predict for mobbing in nesting gulls?

- what did he measure?

A

if mobbing intruders is a behavioural adaptation against egg predators then it should reduce egg predation
- measured mobbing and egg predation

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7
Q

what did Kruuk 1964 discover about mobbing on crows?

A

mobbing greater inside the colony so the egg predation is less on the inside as mobbing works to lower predation and increase reproductive success

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8
Q

what is the comparative method and when is it used? (4)

A
  • method to test evolutionary hypotheses by comparing different taxa
  • to see if 1 factor causes another by seeing
  • if presence/absence of 2 factors is correlated
  • correlate occurance of traits with benefit of trait
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9
Q

if mobbing is an adaptation then when would we only expect to see it?

A

only where effective or necessary

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10
Q

mobbing isnt needed in cliff dwelling gulls

- what was found because of this?

A

no mobbing of ground predators in cliff nesting kittiwakes on ground intruders

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11
Q

in the gull phylogeny what is derived and which species lack it/do mob?

A

cliff nesting
kittiwakes lack mobbing behaviour
all ground nesting gulls mob

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12
Q

in swallows some species have lost mobbing over evolutionary time- why is this and what species?

A

the traits are derived within their phylogeny and group

- solitary nesting rough winged swallows

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13
Q

what is the evolution in the loss of mobbing from the ground nesting ulls to kittiwake, from colonial nesting swallows to rough winged and between kittiwakes and rough winged swallow?

A

divergent
divergent
convergent

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14
Q

what are the 4 main anti predator adaptations?

A

anti-detection
anti-attack
anti- capture
anti-consumption

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15
Q

what is the anti-detection adaptation? (5)

A
  • crypsis: hiding from prey
  • camouflage such as mantidactylus frog looking like dead leaves
  • transparency such as ribbon eel larvae
  • nocturnality
  • subterranean living
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16
Q

what is the anti-attack adaptation? (6)

A
  • protects animals detected by predators
  • springbok will stot
  • selfish herding
  • mimicry and warning colouration
  • stinging nettle slug caterpillar has toxic spines
  • horned lizard squirts blood from its eyes which is noxious to dogs
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17
Q

what is the anti-capture adaptation? (6)

A
  • once predator is attempting to catch they prey
  • vigilance
  • run, swim , fly fast
  • grasshopper jumps
  • body part autonomy
  • northern alligator lizard sheds its tail in response to capture attempt
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18
Q

what is the anti-consumption adaptation? (5)

A
  • fighting back
  • releasing noxious chemicals
  • faking death
  • being hard to swallow
  • porcupine puffer fish inflates with water and its covered in spines so is difficult to eat
19
Q

what do selfish herds reflect?

A

counterintuitive logic

20
Q

what is the camouflage in the peppered moth?

A

Biston betularia

  • 2 subspecies: light typica form and dark carbonaria form
  • white form camouflaged in trees covered in lichen
  • larvae are camouflaged to look like twigs
21
Q

what are 2 important things to remember about camouflage?

A
  • may involve any of the senses, not just vision, such as olfaction
  • either or both prey and predator may be camouflaged
22
Q

how did Pietrewicz and Kamils study involving blue jays test camouflage? (4)

A
  • operant conditioning of blue jays to respond to white underwing moths
  • detected fewer head up white moths on light bark, particularly those with wings upwards
  • orientation important for detection
  • behaviour of moths affects the ability of bird to detect them and their predation risk
23
Q

what do decorator crabs do to hide from predators?

A

pile algae, coral, anemone on their backs and allow them to grow

24
Q

in decorator crabs when tested on in a predatory fish area what was found to be the prefered choice of species to grow?

A

Dictyota menstrualis
5 times less likely predated if grow the prefered algae
- it contains chemical that is toxic to omnivorous fish

25
Q

what is stotting?

A

jumping up 0.5-1 m in air with legs straight and white rump patch fully visible

26
Q

what did Thomson notice about gazelles stotting and the likely hypothesis for it? (4)

A
  • appear that they advertise themselves to predators
  • may be signalling to the predator that they’ve seen them and are fit to flee
  • predators wont bother chasing these animals that stot
  • unprofitability hypothesis
27
Q

what is the anti-ambush hypothesis for stotting gazelles and why is it incorrect?

A

lets gazelles see what is ahead and reduces chance of being ambushed and is costly so should only occur in long grass
- but it occurs in all habitats including short grass

28
Q

what is the alarm signal hypothesis for stotting gazelles and why is it incorrect?

A

stotting warns conspecifics especially offspring that a predator is near
- but solitary animals also stot and show rump to predators

29
Q

what is the social cohesion hypothesis for stotting gazelles and why is it incorrect?

A

stotting enables gazelles to form groups and flee in a coordinated manner
- but solitary stot and show rump

30
Q

what is the confusion effect hypothesis for stotting gazelles and why is it incorrect?

A

confuses and distracts predators preventing it from focusing on one animal
- but solitary stot

31
Q

what did Caro 1986 discover when observing outcomes of predation attempts of gazelles that stot and those that dont?

A
  • stotting indicates quality as non-stotters were chased (30% compared to 50% chased)
  • predators chasing never successfully killed gazelles that stotted
  • caught and killed non stotters
  • is an honest signal of health and vitality
32
Q

when considering the selfish herd what did Hamilton 1971 discover?(4)

A
  • best to sit next to another frog so arent the only target to a snake that may move in any direction
  • benefit to the individual but not the group
  • bunching may increase total predation risk by making it a more conspicuous target
  • benefit of the selfish herd outweighs the cost of conspicuousness
33
Q

selfish herding can affect positioning behaviour- how is this the case in bluegill sunfish?

A
  • those that nest at edge of colony more likely attacked by nest predators
  • prefer to nest in the centre where are safer from egg predators
34
Q

selfish herding works by the dilution effect- what is this and what is the chance of being eaten by 5 predators

a) in a group of 40
b) in a group of 400

A

larger group means less chance of an individual being eaten

a) 0.125
b) 0.0125

35
Q

give 4 points about whirligig beetles

A
  • sit on pond surface eating small insects
  • predated by fish beneath the water
  • larger groups are more attractive with a higher strike rate by predators
  • individual predation risk less in larger groups
36
Q

what was discovered about selfish herding and the dilution effect in whirligig beetles? (4)

A
  • trade off in obtaining food vs predation risk
  • food more abundant at the edge of the group as has been eaten in the centre
  • predation risk is greater at the edge
  • if deprived of food will forage on the outside of the group
37
Q

what is the mayfly emergence dilution effect? (4)

A
  • mayfly nymphs live in freshwater and adults are aerial
  • predation risk greater on days when fewer adults emerge
  • risk is lower when many adults emerge as predators such as birds become satiated after eating a lower proportion of flies
  • dilution effect will lead to synchrony of emergence
38
Q

how are seabird egg laying and coral spawning synchronous ?

A
  • may satiate gulls preying on fledging chicks

- may satiate animals preying on the gametes

39
Q

what is vigilance like in group formation?

A

increased so may reduce predator attack

40
Q

what was Kenwards experiment 1978 on the goth hawk and wild pigeons? (4)

A
  • released the hawk from a set distance of wild pigeons
  • pigeons noticed hawk from further away when lots of them
  • as number in flock increases the reaction time decreases as more warning and time to escape
  • larger flocks had fewer successful predation attacks
41
Q

why can grouping be considered costly?

A

increased food competition

42
Q

sparrows may feed alone or in groups- what determines this?

A
  • when low predation risk sparrows choose to be solitary

- when high choose to be in groups for extra vigilance

43
Q

in an experiment on vigilance in sparrows what was done/found? (4)

A
  • manipulated distance to predator (15m away or 25m away)
  • manipulated distance to safe cover (adjacent or 2m away)
  • fewer chirrup calls close to safe cover and far from predator
  • forage alone if no predation as can get more food avoiding competitive group foraging costs
44
Q

a) which moth has realistic eye spots that perhaps were not always realistic?
b) when testing if any contrasting shape on the hind wing can startle birds what was concluded?

A

a) Automeris

b) do startle but markings more similar to eyespots have a greater anti predator impact

APS 209: Animal behaviour (25 decks)

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