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OCR Biology > 4.1 COMMUNICABLE DISEASE > Flashcards

4.1 COMMUNICABLE DISEASE Flashcards

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1
Q

State the four types of pathogens

A

1) Bacteria (prokaryotes)
2) Virus
3) Fungi (eukaryotes)
4) Protoctista

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2
Q

State and describe the communicable diseases caused by bacteria

A

1) Tuberculosis
- Kills the cells and tissues of host

2) Bacterial meningitis
- Causes infection of nervous system membranes

3) Ring rot in plants
- Causes leaf wilting
- Causes decay in vascular tissue

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3
Q

State and describe the communicable diseases caused by viruses

A

1) HIV/AIDS
- Attacks cells of immune system

2) Influenza
- Attacks respiratory system and causes muscle pain

3) Tobacco mosaic virus in plants
- Causes discolouration of leafs

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4
Q

State and describe the communicable diseases caused by fungi

A

1) Athletes foot
- Fungal growth between toes

2) Ringworm in cattle
- Growth of spores in skin causing rash by erupting

3) Black sigatoka in bananas
- Causes leaf spots which reduces yeild

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5
Q

State and describe the communicable diseases caused by protoctista

A

1) Malaria
- Parasite in the blood transmitted by mosquito causes fever/coma/death

2) Blight in tomatoes/potatoes
- Affects leaves and potatoes

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6
Q

Describe the general action of bacteria

A
  • Reproduce rapidly to damage by releasing toxins into host cell
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7
Q

Describe the general action of viruses

A
  • Take over genetic machinery by copying viral cells in the nucleus of host
  • Host cell eventually bursts/dies
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8
Q

Describe the general action of fungi

A
  • Contain hyphae that release spores
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9
Q

Describe the general action of protoctista

A
  • Feed on host cells contents
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10
Q

Define primary non-specific defence

A
  • Defence that prevents pathogens from entering the body
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11
Q

State the five primary non-specific defences in animals

A

1) The skin
2) Blood clotting for wound repair
3) Mucous membranes
4) Coughing/sneezing
5) Inflammation

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12
Q

Explain the role of the skin in primary non-specific response

A
  • Is a tough physical barrier made of the protein keratin
  • Keratin replaces the cytoplasm of dead cells on the skin surface
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13
Q

Explain the role of blood clotting in primary non-specific response

A
  • Clotting factors are released from platelets which activate enzyme cascades
  • This then clots the cut so a scab can form, creating a temporary seal
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14
Q

Define and explain the role of mucous membranes in primary non-specific response

A
  • They are specialised epithelial cells that are covered in mucus
  • Contain golblet cells which secrete mucus to trap any pathogens
  • Their cilia then wafts away the pathogens trapped in mucus down to the acidic stomach
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15
Q

Explain the role of the coughing/sneezing in primary non-specific response

A
  • When pathogens irrittate or secrete toxins sudden expulsions of air will carry out the microorganisms
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16
Q

Define and explain the role of inflammation in primary non-specific response

A
  • When tissues swell and go red due to infection
  • Histamine is released when p, raasathogens are in tissue
  • Histamine causes vasodilation which results in the capillary walls to be more permeable to phagocytes/lymphocytes
  • Blood plasma and phagocytes leave the blood and enter tissue fluid which causes swelling
  • Excess tissue fluid drains into lymphatic system where lymphs are so that pathogens are in contact with lymphocytes
  • This then initiates an immune response
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17
Q

Define antigen-presenting cell

A
  • A cell that isolates the antigen of a pathogen and places it on its plasma membrane to increase the chance of being recognised by T or B lymphocytes in the immune system
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18
Q

Define and describe clonal selection

A
  • Activation of a specific B or T cell that is specific to the antigen on an antigen presenting cell
  • Causes a specific immune response
  • Results in long-term immunity
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19
Q

Define antigen

A
  • Chemical markers on the outer membrane of a cell that causes an immune response
  • Glycoproteins on the plasma membrane that are specific to that cell
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20
Q

Define cytokines

A
  • Hormone-like molecules used in cell signalling to stimulate an immune response
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21
Q

Define neutrophil

A
  • A type of white blood cell that engulfs foreign matter and traps it in a large vacuole (phagosome) which fuses with lysosomes to digest the foreign matter
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22
Q

Define opsonin

A
  • Proteins that bind to the antigens on a pathogen and then enhance phagocytes (neutrophils) ability to bind
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23
Q

Define secondary non-specific defence

A
  • Used to combat pathogens already in the body, detected by their antigens
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24
Q

Draw and describe neutrophils

A
  • Multilobed nucleus
  • Manufactured in bone marrow
  • Travel in blood and pop out into tissue fluid
  • Short-lived
  • Released in large numbers at site of infection
  • Contain lysosome/digestive enzymes
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25
Q

Explain how neutrophils are adapted to their function

A
  • Have receptors on plasma membrane that can bind to specific opsonin or antigen
  • The multi-lobed nucleus allows it to squeeze through narrow gaps
  • A well developed cytoskeleton allows it to change shape to **engulf pathogens ** and to move lysosome vacuoles around the cell
  • Many lysosomes containing lysin for digestion
  • Many mitochondria to release energy from glucose
  • Many ribosomes to produce the enzymes involved
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26
Q

Draw the process of phagocytosis

A
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27
Q

Define macrophage

A
  • Are monocytes
  • Large phagocytes also produced in bone marrow that become antigen-presenting cells when they engulf pathogens
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28
Q

Define active immunity

A
  • Immunity obtained from the production of antibodies in response to infection or vaccination (exposure to antigens)
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29
Q

Define auto-immune disease

A
  • When anitbodies attack our own antigens by mistake
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30
Q

State how auto-immune diseases arise

A
  • When B or T lymphocytes that are specific to our antigens are NOT KILLED when they should be at early stages
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31
Q

State two auto-immune diseases

A

1) Arthirits
2) Lupus

32
Q

Define lymphocytes

A
  • White blood cells with large nuclei and specialised receptors on their plasma membranes
33
Q

State which lymphocytes are involved in the specific immune response

A
  • T lymphocytes
  • B lymphocytes
34
Q

What type of immunity does specific immune response provide

A
  • Long-term immunity
35
Q

Describe T-lymphocytes

A
  • Produced in the bone marrow
  • Mature in the thymus gland
  • Are smaller than phagocytes
  • Have a large nucleus
  • Travel in the blood
36
Q

State the four T cells

A

1) T-helper cells
2) T-killer cells
3) T-memory cells
4) T-regulatory cells

37
Q

Describe the role of T-helper cells

A
  • Release chemical messangers (cytokines) that stimulate B-lymphocytes to develop and stimulates phagocytes to develop
38
Q

Describe the role of T-killer cells

A
  • Attack and kill infected host-body cells that display the foreign antigen
39
Q

Describe the role of T-memory cells

A
  • Remain in the blood for a long-time after, to produce a secondary, longterm immune response
40
Q

Describe the role of T-regulatory cells

A
  • Inhibit the immune response after pathogen is removed to prevent auto-immunity
41
Q

Describe B-lymphocytes

A
  • Produced and mature in the bone marrow
  • Are smaller than phagocytes
  • Have a large nucleus
  • Travel in the blood
42
Q

State the two types of B-cells

A

1) B-memory cells
2) Plasma cells

43
Q

Describe the role of B-memory cells

A
  • Remain in the body after to produce a longterm immune response
44
Q

Describe the role of plasma cells

A
  • Manufacture and release antibodies
45
Q

State the chemical that allows for cell signalling in the immune system

A
  • Cytokines
46
Q

How can a target cell be detected via cell signalling

A
  • Must have a cell surface receptor that is specific to cytokines shape
47
Q

State two ways in which cell signalling is used in the immune system

A

1) Macrophages release specific cytokines which attract neutrophils and stimulate B cells to differenciate and release antibodies
2) T-cells and macrophages release specific cytokines which stimulate the clonal expansion and differenciation of T and B lymphocytes

48
Q

Define immunoglobulin

A
  • Complex proteins produced by plasma cells (B) in the immune response to an infection
49
Q

Give an example of an immunoglobulin

A
  • Antibodies
50
Q

Draw a detailed structure of antibodies

A
51
Q

State the three ways that antibodies work in

A

1) As opsonins
2) As agglutinins
3) As antitoxins

52
Q

Describe antibodies as opsonins

A
  • Antibodies can bind to antigens of a pathogen then act as a binding site for neutrophils/phagocytes
53
Q

Describe antibodies as agglutinins

A
  • Because each antibody molecule has two identicle binding sites for antigens, it can crosslink pathogens
  • When many antibodies crosslink pathogens togther, they clump together many pathogens (agglutination)
  • This physically impaires them and means they are more easily detected by phagocytes/neutrophils
54
Q

Describe antibodies as antitoxins

A
  • Some antibodies bind to molecules that are released by pathogens which may be toxic so antibodies neutralise/untoxicate them
55
Q

Describe ,with a graph, the primary and secondary specific immune response

A
  • Antibodies are produced in response to infection
  • It takes a few days for the antibody level to rise in the blood that can efficiently combat pathogens (PRIMARY immune response)
  • Once pathogens are dealt with, antibody levels drop rapidly
  • The second time the pathogen enters the body, T-memory and B-memory cells recognise the specific antigens
  • Thus antibodies are produced much more rapidly and at higher concentrations (SECONDARY immune response)
  • No symptoms produced for the host
56
Q

Compare the different types of immunity

A
57
Q

Define active immunity

A
  • Where the immune system is activated and manufactures its own antibodies
58
Q

Define passive immunity

A
  • Where immunity is achieved when antibodies are passed to an individual through breast feeding or injection
59
Q

Define artificial immunity

A
  • Immunity that is achieved as a result of medical intervention
60
Q

Define natural immunity

A
  • Immunity achieved through normal life processes
61
Q

Define vaccination

A
  • Stimulating an immune response via harmless antigenic material to provide immunity
  • Releases antibodies and T-memory/B-memory cells
62
Q

Define epidemic

A
  • A rapid spread of disease through a high proportion of the population
63
Q

State the four forms of antigenic material that can be used in vaccines

A

1) A dead pathogen
2) A toxoid (harmless version of toxin)
3) An attenuated pathogen
4) A preperation of antigens from the pathogen

64
Q

Define herd vaccination

A
  • Vaccine that provides immunity to all/almost all of the population
  • Disease can no longer spread once enough people are vaccinated
65
Q

Define ring vaccination

A
  • Vaccinating the people in immediate vicinity of the reported case
66
Q

State how epidemics arise

A
  • When the pathogen undergoes genetic mutation so the antigens are not recognised by memory cells during the second exposure
67
Q

State three reasons drugs are needed

A

1) New diseases are emerging
2) Some antibiotics are becoming less effective
3) There is still no medicine for some current diseases

68
Q

State how wildlife use natural medicines

A

1) Animals rub citrus oils on their octas as insecticides/antiseptics to prevent insect bites/infection
2) Birds line their nests with medicinal leaves to protect chicks from blood-sucking mites

69
Q

State how medicines can be made via pathogen plamsa membrane antigens

A
  • The binding site between pathogen antigens and body cell receptors needs to be blocked
  • The glycoprotein receptor molecule needs to be isolated, sequenced
  • This is to determine a drug that mimics the shape of the receptor so that the antigen can be binded to and blocked
70
Q

State the effect of the overuse of antibiotic

A
  • Causes pathogenic micro-organisms to become resistant
71
Q

State two bacteria that have resistance to multiple antibiotics

A

1) MRSA
2) Clostridium difficile (C. diff)

72
Q

State the use of synthetic biology in medicine

A
  • Can produce new molecules (particularlly enzymes) that can mimic biological systems
73
Q

Describe personalised medicine

A
  • Medicinal compounds can be produced from DNA sequences via sequencing/molecular modelling an organisms genome
74
Q

State a widely used antibiotic

A
  • Penicillin
75
Q
A

OCR Biology (27 decks)

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