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4: The self Flashcards

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1
Q

Who first defined ‘the self’?

A

William James (1890)

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2
Q

According to William James (1980), what are the two components of the self?

A
  1. Me

2. I

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3
Q

According to William James (1980), what does the component of the self ‘me’ encompass?

A

The self as observed.

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4
Q

According to William James (1980), what are the four dimensions of the ‘me’ component of the self?

(Hint: PATS)

A
  1. Possessions
  2. Attributes
  3. Traits
  4. Skills
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5
Q

According to William James (1980), what does the component of the self ‘I’ encompass?

A

The self as an observer.

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6
Q

According to William James (1980), what are the 2 dimensions of the ‘I’ component of self?

A
  1. The self is more than a sum of parts.

2. A stream of consciousness awareness.

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7
Q

What are 2 important components of the self?

A
  1. Self esteem.

2. Self concept.

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8
Q

What is the self concept?

A

A collection of beliefs about oneself, related to our characteristics, skills and qualities.

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9
Q

What is self esteem?

A

A global evaluation of the self, related to our feelings of self worth and competence.

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10
Q

Describe 4 qualities observed in those with high self esteem:

A
  1. Higher self concept clarity.
  2. Higher self confidence and self efficacy.
  3. Happiness.
  4. Self affirmation and ability to cope with threats to self image.
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11
Q

Describe 3 qualities observed in those with low self esteem:

A
  1. Negative self views.
  2. Concerned about others opinions.
  3. Threats to self image cause a negative spreading effect on person.
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12
Q

According to Taforadi and Milne (2002), what are the 2 dimensions of global self esteem?

A
  1. Self liking.

2. Self competence.

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13
Q

Give two examples of domain specific self esteem?

A
  1. Music ability.

2. Social self esteem.

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14
Q

Self reported evaluations of oneself is known as:

A

explicit self esteem.

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15
Q

Unconscious, automatic evaluations of oneself is known as:

A

implicit self esteem.

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16
Q

What is the possible downside of explicit self esteem?

A

Subject to self presentation/deception bias.

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17
Q

Is there a low or high correlation between explicit and implicit self esteem?

A

Low correlation.

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18
Q

Name 2 experimental tasks that can used to measure implicit self esteem:

(Hint: IAT N-LT)

A
  1. Implicit Associations Test

2. Name-Letter Test.

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19
Q

_______ self esteem reveal positive and negative _______ related to the self.

A

Implicit self esteem reveal positive and negative constructs related to the self.

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20
Q

Long-term, stable constructs of oneself is known as:

A

trait self esteem.

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21
Q

Momentary fluctuations in self feelings is known as:

A

state self esteem.

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22
Q

State self esteem changes in response to:

A

self related events.

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23
Q

What 2 ways can we manipulate state self esteem in research?

A
  1. Giving feedback.

2. Inducing success/failure experiences.

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24
Q

Cognitive representations of the self, organised like schemas are known as:

A

self schemas.

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25
Q

What are the 3 main purposes of self schemas?

A
  1. Guide behaviour in relevant situations.
  2. Aid memory for relevant info.
  3. Influence inferences, decisions and judgments.
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26
Q

Self schemas about our potential future selves are called:

A

possible selves.

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27
Q

Where the 2 main purposes of the possible selves, self schema?

A
  1. Represent our hopes and fears for the future.

2. Help us focus and organise plans for pursuing our goals.

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28
Q

How might we measure self discrepancies?

A

Selves questionnaire.

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29
Q

What two components form our self guides?

A
  1. Ought self.

2. Ideal self.

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30
Q

Discrepancies between the ______ ______ and ______ _____ leads to negative emotions.

A

Discrepancies between the actual self and self guides leads to negative emotions.

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31
Q

Not meeting the _____ self = dejection and depression.

Not meeting the _____ self = agitation and anxiety.

A

Not meeting the ideal self = dejection and depression.

Not meeting the ought self = agitation and anxiety.

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32
Q

When do we first learn about personal qualities and worthiness?

A

Childhood.

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33
Q

According to Erikson, when is the critical time for identity formation?

A

Adolescence and young adulthood.

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34
Q

The way we are treated by others in childhood and the cultural activities we exposed to is called:

A

socialisation.

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35
Q

The part of self concept derived from social groups, such as family, work, religion and community is called our:

A

social identity.

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36
Q

Self constructs influence our _____, _______ and _______ about the social world.

A

Self constructs influence our goals, emotions and cognitions about the social world.

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37
Q

What 4 constructs are important in Western culture?

Hint: I USE

A
  1. Independence
  2. Uniqueness
  3. Stable across situations
  4. Egocentric emotions and achievements
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38
Q

What 4 constructs are important in Latin culture?

Hint: ICCG

A
  1. Interdependence
  2. Connectedness
  3. Changes across situations
  4. Group orientated emotions and achievements
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39
Q

According to Cooley (1902) how do we learn about ourselves?

A

Through others responses.

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40
Q

According to Schrauger and Schoeneman (1979) we define ourselves in accordance to how we THINK others see ourselves. This school of thought this falls under is:

A

symbolic interactionism.

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41
Q

‘We see ourselves through the way other people see us’ is known as:

A

The looking glass self.

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42
Q

The looking glass self via symbolic interactionism is a type of _________ __________.

A

The looking glass self via symbolic interactionism is a type of reflected appraisal.

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43
Q

When we receive direct feedback from others, it immediately affects our:

A

state self esteem.

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44
Q

When we receive direct feedback from others, in the long term, it affects our:

A

self concept.

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45
Q

We learn about ourselves through observing our own behaviour. This is called:

A

self perception.

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46
Q

What 2 types of comparisons do we make as a source of self-knowledge?

A
  1. Social comparisons.

2. Temporal comparisons.

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47
Q

What are social comparisons?

A

Comparing others to oneself.

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48
Q

What are temporal comparisons?

A

Comparing one’s current and past behaviours.

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49
Q

The self is an active, dynamic construct. The mainly unconscious process, whereby the self guides thoughts, feelings and behaviour is called:

A

self regulation.

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50
Q

The particular self schema, that is activated in situations to drive cognitions and behaviour is called the:

(Hint: WSC)

A

working self concept.

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51
Q

Areas of personal importance, such as academic success or social approval are known as:

(Hint: CoSW)

A

Contingencies of Self Worth

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52
Q

Contingencies of Self Worth drive:

1.
2.

A
  1. reactions to events.

2. behaviour

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53
Q

According to Crocker et al. (2003), in what way do CoSW drive our reactions to events?

A

The self is receptive to success but vulnerable to setbacks.

54
Q

In what way do CoSW impact our subsequent behaviours?

A

We are more motivated to succeed in important domains.

55
Q

According to Bandura, expectations about our abilities to achieve certain goals is know as:

A

self efficacy.

56
Q

High self efficacy increases:

  1. 2.
A
  1. effort.

2. self persistence

57
Q

What does self efficacy help us cope with?

A

Setbacks

58
Q

Self control is a motivated limited resource, much like a muscle that gets tired though use, but rebounds with strength and practice. This is known as the:

(Hint: S-RRM)

A

Self-Regulatory Resource Model

59
Q

According tot he Self-Regulatory Resource Model, how may we increase self-control?

1.
2.

A
  1. Practice exerting self control.

2. Set behavioural intentions.

60
Q

What are the 4 self motives of self regulation?

Self:

1.
2.
3.
4.

(Hint: AIVE)

A

Self:

  1. assessment
  2. improvement
  3. verification
  4. enhancement
61
Q

According to Trope (1975), the motive to see the self accurately is known as:

A

self assessment.

62
Q

Self assessment makes outcomes:

1.
2.
3.

A
  1. Predictable.
  2. Controllable.
  3. Evolutionary adaptive.
63
Q

Self assessment motivates us to seek _______ feedback from an _______ source.

A

Self assessment motivates us to seek objective feedback from an expert source.

64
Q

How did Trope (1986) demonstrate that self assessment motivates us to seek objective feedback from an expert source?

A

People often select tasks that are highly diagnostic, even if negative outcomes are possible.

65
Q

According to Deci and Ryan (2000), we are motivated to improve ourselves and become a better person. What motivates self improvement?

A

Negative feedback.

66
Q

When negative feedback motivates self improvement, this is known as:

(Hint: CSC)

A

Constructive Self Criticism

67
Q

According to Swann (1987), the motive to confirm existing views is called:

A

Self Verification.

68
Q

Stable self views aid _________ and ________ of events.

A

Stable self views aid predictability and controllability of events.

69
Q

Stable self views aid predictability and controllability of events via:

1.
2.

A
  1. Cognitive coherence.

2. Smooth interactions.

70
Q

Is the self verification process is mainly:

a) conscious
b) unconscious

A

b) unconscious

71
Q

The self verification process is mainly unconscious, but can be activated by:

A

self discrepant information.

72
Q

What the 3 main strategies used to self verify?

A
  1. Behaving self-consistently.
  2. Wearing certain clothes or symbols.
  3. Selecting interaction partners or feedback.
73
Q

According to Swann et al. (1992), what is associated with seeking out to verify negative self views, which maintains these negative self views in the long term?

A

Depression

74
Q

According to Steele (1988), the motive to view the self positively and feel good about the self is called:

A

Self enhancement.

75
Q

According to Steele (1988), what are the two main aspects of self enhancement?

A
  1. self promotion

2. self protection

76
Q

According to Steele (1988), what is self promotion?

A

pursuing positivity.

77
Q

According to Steele (1988), what is self protection?

A

avoiding negativity.

78
Q

According to Sedikides (1993), people prefer to ask questions about themselves that elicit:

A

positive feedback.

79
Q

According to Sedikides (1993), people prefer to ask questions about themselves that elicit positive feedback. This is especially motivated by:

A

threat or failure.

80
Q

According to Sedikides and Gregg (2003), people generally hold unrealistically positive views about themselves, this is known as the:

(Hint: S-ET)

A

Self-Enhancing Triad

81
Q

The 3 illusions that comprise the Self-Enhancing Triad are:

A
  1. above average effect.
  2. illusions of control.
  3. unrealistic optimism.
82
Q

Explain the above average effect illusions exhibited in the Self-Enhancing Triad:

A

Regarding oneself in more superior in a particular ability than they actually are.

83
Q

Explain the illusion of control exhibited in the Self-Enhancing Triad:

A

People overestimate the level of control they have over outcomes and contingencies, seeing their actions as influential even when they are in fact inconsequential.

Also, people stand by their apparent conviction that they can influence the outcomes of inherently random systems.

84
Q

Explain the illusion of unrealistic optimism in the Self-Enhancing Triad:

A

People typically believe that their life will hold a greater number of positive experiences and fewer negative experiences than the lives of similar others. They tend to overestimate their predictions of the future.

85
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what are the 6 strategies used in self enhancement?

A
  1. Self-serving attributional bias.
  2. Strategic social comparisons.
  3. Memory bias.
  4. Strategic construals.
  5. Self-presentation.
  6. Self-handicapping.
86
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what is the self-serving attributional bias?

A

Attributing positive outcomes to one’s internal disposition, but negative outcomes to factors beyond one’s control.

87
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what are strategic social comparisons?

A

The subjective exploitation of scenarios in order to give a more favourable outcome to the self in comparisons between the self and others.

88
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what is memory bias?

A

Selectively remembering strengths rather than weaknesses.

89
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what are strategic construals?

A

The concepts that people use to understand themselves and their social world are relatively vague.

Consequently, when making social comparisons or estimations, people can easily and subtly shift their construal of the meaning of those concepts in order to self-enhance.

90
Q

According to Tesser et al. (2000), what is self handicapping?

A

The act of erecting obstacles in the path of task success, in order to reduce the evaluative implications that can be drawn from task performance.

91
Q

There is current debate as to whether self enhancement is good for you.

One argument that self enhancement is good for you is that it yields:

A

intrapersonal benefits.

92
Q

What are the 4 intrapersonal benefits of self enhancement?

A
  1. Positive emotions.
  2. High self esteem.
  3. High self efficacy/confidence.
  4. Better responses to threat/negative feedback.
93
Q

There is current debate as to whether self enhancement is good for you.

One argument that self enhancement is bad for you is that it:

A

leads to less accurate judgments.

94
Q

Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours; often learning such theories from our culture is called:

E.g. ‘absence makes the heart grow fonder’.

A

Causal theories

95
Q

Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability is called:

(Hint: DSC)

A

Downward Social Comparison

96
Q

The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting, is called:

A

Extrinsic motivation

97
Q

The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change is called a:

A

fixed minset.

98
Q

The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate or grow is called a:

A

growth mindset.

99
Q

The attempt by people tog et others to see them as they want to be seen is called:

A

Impression management.

100
Q

A way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings and actions; and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings and actions of others, is called an:

(Hint: IVotS)

A

Independent View of the Self

101
Q

The process whereby people flatter, praise or generally try to make themselves likeable to another person of high status is called:

A

ingratiation.

102
Q

A ways of defining oneself fin terms of one’s relationships to other people, recognising that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings and actions of others is called the:

(Hint: IVotS)

A

Interdependent View of the Self

103
Q

The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures is called:

A

intrinsic motivation.

104
Q

The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives is called:

A

introspection.

105
Q

The process whereby people make mistaken inference about what is causing them to feel that way they do is called:

(Hint: MoA)

A

Misattribution of Arousal

106
Q

The combination of excessive self-love and lack of empathy towards others is called:

A

narcissism.

107
Q

The tendency for people to view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which is was caused by intrinsic reasons is called the:

(Hint: O-JE)

A

Over-Justifiation Effect

108
Q

Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task are called:

(Hint: P-CR)

A

Performance-Conteingent Rewards

109
Q

Attitude can change due to thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes. People assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise. This is called the:

(Hint: R-GAC)

A

Reasons-Generated Attitude Change

110
Q

The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour to their internal standards and values, is called:

(Hint: S-AT)

A

Self-Awarness Theory

111
Q

People’s evaluations of their own self worth, that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent and decent, is called:

A

Self esteem.

112
Q

The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which is occurs, is called:

(Hint: S-PT)

A

Self-Perception Theory

113
Q

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people is called:

(Hint: SCT)

A

Social Comparison Theory

114
Q

How do we measure self-recognition in humans and animals?

A

The mirror self-recognition test.

115
Q

Studies show that _____ apes, such as chimps and orangutans pass the mirror self-recognition test, whereas, _____ apes do not.

A

Studies show that great apes, such as chimps and orangutans pass the mirror self-recognition test, whereas, lesser apes do not.

116
Q

At what age does self recognition develop in humans?

A

18-24 months.

117
Q

In humans, when does the self-concept become much more complex?

A

Adolescence.

118
Q

In adulthood, what are the 4 components of the self?

A
  1. Self-knowledge.
  2. Self-control.
  3. Impression management.
  4. Self esteem.
119
Q

Cultural differences in defining the self:

People who grow up in Western cultures have an _________ view of the self, whereas, people who grow up in Asian cultures tend to have an ___________ view of the self.

A

Cultural differences in defining the self:

People who grow up in Western cultures have an independent view of the self, whereas, people who grow up in Asian cultures tend to have an interdependent view of the self.

120
Q

Gender differences in defining the self:

Women tend to have _______ _______, focusing more on closer relationships.

Men tend to have ______ ________, focusing more on their membership in larger groups.

A

Gender differences in defining the self:

Women tend to have relational interdependence, focusing more on closer relationships.

Men tend to have collective interdependence, focusing more on their membership in larger groups.

121
Q

According to Self-Awarness Theory, when people _________, they evaluate and compare their current behaviour to their internal standards and values.

A

According to Self-Awarness Theory, when people introspect, they evaluate and compare their current behaviour to their internal standards and values.

122
Q

Knowing ourselves through introspection: Self-Awareness Theory

According to research on “telling more than you know”, when people introspect about why they feel the way they do, they often use _______ theories, many of which are learned from one’s _______.

A

Knowing ourselves through introspection: Self-Awareness Theory

According to research on “telling more than you know”, when people introspect about why they feel the way they do, they often use causal theories, many of which are learned from one’s culture.

123
Q

Knowing ourselves through introspection: Self-Awareness Theory

According to research on “telling more than you know”, when people think about the reasons for their attitudes, they assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are _______ and easy to ________; leading to ______ -_______ attitude change.

A

Knowing ourselves through introspection: Self-Awareness Theory

According to research on “telling more than you know”, when people think about the reasons for their attitudes, they assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise; leading to reasons -generated attitude change.

124
Q

Emotional experience is the result of a two-step self perception process in which people first experience arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it. Sometimes, people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to be aroused. This is called the:

(Hint: T-F ToE)

A

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

125
Q

People with a fixed mindset are more likely to give up after ________ and are less likely to work on honing their skills.

A

People with a fixed mindset are more likely to give up after setbacks and are less likely to work towards honing their skills.

126
Q

People with a growth mindset view setbacks as __________ to improve through _____ ______.

A

People with a growth mindset view setbacks as opportunities to improve through hard work.

127
Q

According to recent research, what is the mental fuel we spend on self-control?

A

Glucose in the bloodstream.

128
Q

According to Impression Management, all the world is a _____.

A

According to Impression Management, all the world is a stage.

129
Q

What are the 2 most common impression management strategies:

A
  1. Ingratiation

2. Self handicapping

130
Q

Most people have _____ self esteem.

A

Most people have high self esteem.

131
Q

Recent research has indicated that high self esteem protects us from thoughts about our own mortality. This is known as:

(Hint: TMT)

A

Terror Management Theory

132
Q

What is one potential problem with having high self esteem?

A

Narcissism.

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