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Bio 239 > 4. Skeletal System - Axial > Flashcards

4. Skeletal System - Axial Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 6 main functions of the skeletal system?

A
  1. support: structural framework, supports soft tissues and provides attachment points for tendons
  2. movement: skeletal muscles attach to bone and pull on bone to produce movement
  3. protection: the skeleton protects internal organs from injury. Ex: cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones) protect the spinal cord, and the rib cage protects the heart and lungs
  4. electrolyte balance/mineral storage and release: acid-base balance, detoxification - bones will concentrate poisons, such as radiation. Bone tissue stores several minerals (calcium and phosphorus for strength). On demand, bone releases minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral balances and to distribute the minerals to other parts of the body
  5. blood cell formation: red BM (a CT within certain bones) produces RBCs, WBCs, and platelets through hemopoiesis. When we get older, red BM becomes yellow BM (is replaced with fat)
  6. triglyceride storage: yellow BM (mainly adipose cells) stores triglycerides (a potential chemical energy reserve)
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2
Q

What are the 5 shapes of bones?

A
  1. long bones
  2. short bones
  3. flat bones
  4. irregular bones
  5. sesamoid bones
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3
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of long bones? Give an example.

A
  • appearance & function: slightly curved for strength (a curved bone absorbs the stress of the body’s weight at several different points so that it is evenly distributed)
  • structure: mostly compact bone tissue (dense), but also spongy bone tissue (less dense). The only type of bone with a diaphysis (long shaft) and medullary cavity (BM)
  • ex: humerus (arm bone), ulna and radius (forearm bones), femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (leg bones), phalanges (finger and toe bones)
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4
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of short bones? Give an example.

A
  • appearance: cube-shaped
  • structure: spongy bone except at surface (thin layer of compact bone)
  • ex: trapezoid, carpal bones (wrist), tarsal bones (ankle)
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5
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of flat bones? Give an example.

A
  • appearance & function: thin, affords protection and provides muscle attachment
  • structure: 2 nearly parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.
  • diploe: spongy bone sandwiched between layers of compact bones (external and internal tables)
  • ex: cranial bones (skull) protect the brain, sternum (breastbone) and ribs protect organs in the thorax, scapulae (shoulder blades)
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6
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of irregular bones? Give an example.

A
  • appearance: complex shapes and cannot be grouped
  • structure: vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone present
  • ex: vertebra (backbones), facial bones, calcaneus (heel bone)
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7
Q

What are the characteristics of sesamoid bones? Give an example.

A
  • appearance & function: shaped like a sesame seed, develop within certain tendons to protect tendons from considerable wear and tear, provide stability for knees, gripping for thumbs and toes
  • ex: the biggest sesamoids are the patella (the knee), and 2 under each thumb and big toe (10 total)
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8
Q

What are sutural (Wormian) bones?

A

small bones located within the sutures (joints) of certain cranial bones

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9
Q

What is the difference between compact and spongy bone?

A
  • compact: weight-bearing, dense bone

- spongy bone: shock-absorbing bone, contains air-cells (cancellous)

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10
Q

What are the 3 main sections of a long bone?

A
  1. epiphysis: includes spongy bone
    - proximal epiphysis
    - distal epiphysis
  2. metaphysis (considered part of epiphysis): between epiphysis and diaphysis, contains epiphyseal plate/line (hyaline)
  3. diaphysis (shaft): includes compact bone
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11
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of proximal epiphysis?

A
  • includes articular cartilage
  • there is an epiphyseal plate which exists in childhood and disappears/fossifies to become the epiphyseal line. While bones do not lengthen after this time, bones can still thicken
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12
Q

What is articular cartilage?

A
  • appearance: thin layer of hyaline cartilage where bone forms articulation (joint) with another bone
  • function: reduces friction and absobs shock
  • unusual - lacks perichondrium and blood vessels, so repair is limited
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13
Q

What are the characteristics of distal epiphysis?

A

the other end, also includes articular cartilage

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14
Q

What are the characteristics of diaphysis?

A
  1. periosteum: tough sheath (outer membrane) that surrounds bone surface not covered by articular cartilage. Protects bone, assists in fracture repair, nourishes bone tissue, serves as attachment for tendons and ligaments, secures blood vessels because bones are naturally full of holes (indicates blood vessel). Attached to underlying bone via perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
  2. perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
  3. endosteum: inner membrane, lines medullary cavity
  4. medullary cavity: hollow space within diaphysis for red/yellow fatty BM
  5. nutrient foramina: openings for nutrient arteries/veins
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15
Q

What is diploe?

A
  • the spongy bone structure (or tissue) between the hard outer and inner bone layers/plates of the cranium; found in short, irregular, and flat bones
  • very light but extremely durable (it takes a lot of force to cause a skull fracture)
  • if there is thickening of the bone plate, it indicates blood disphasia because the body is making RBCs using the skull (not normal)
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16
Q

What are the 4 cell types of osseous tissue?

A
  1. osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells
  2. osteoblasts
  3. osteocytes
  4. osteoclasts
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17
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of osteogenic cells (osteoprogenitor cells)?

A
  1. stem cells found in periosteum, endosteum, and central canals of osteons. Will differentiate into osteoblasts
  2. the only mitotic bone cells
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18
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of osteoblasts?

A
  1. function: bone builders - will form the bone matrix (which is made of calcium, phosphate, salts, and organic matter (collagen fibers/fibroblasts)). Synthesize and secrete collagen fibers for bone ECM, initiate calcification, contribute to circumferential lamellae
  2. nonmitotic and replaced by osteogenic cells
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19
Q

What are the 3 characteristics of osteocytes?

A
  1. function: mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue, communicates physically through canaliculi
  2. live in lacuna
  3. strain detectors
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20
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of osteoclasts?

A
  1. function: bone-breaking cells (bone-dissolving macrophages) - functions in resorption or the breakdown of bone matrix
  2. appearance: large (150 microns), with 5 or more nuclei (presence of more nuclei in any other cell is indicative of a tumor), has a ruffled border
    - Ex: When you exercise, cells are tearing your bone apart so that it can make them thicker and stronger, and you will retain that thickness for the rest of your days (good for avoiding osteoporosis, if you eat and workout)
    - secrete hydrogen ions between cell and bone, chloride ions follow by attraction to create HCl (pH = 4!)
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21
Q

What are the 12 characteristics of compact bone?

A
  1. circumferential lamellae: surface layers, help resist twisting strains
  2. osteon (Haversian system): basic structural unit, it is a concentric lamellae
  3. concentric lamellae: “Target” layer, circular plates of mineralized ECM of increasing diameter, surrounds a small network of blood vessels, lymphatcs, and nerves located in a hollow central canal
  4. central (Haversian) canal: tube-like units of bone that run parallel to long axis of bone
  5. lacunae: contains osteocytes
  6. canaliculi: filled with extracellular fluid, connect lacunae with one another for routes for nutrients, oxygen, wastes
  7. interstitial lamellae: areas between neighboring osteons; they are fragments of older osteons
  8. perforating (Volkmann) canals: horizontal to osteons, found between Haversian canals. They allow blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves from periosteum to penetrate compact bone. This is how bones heal themselves
  9. periosteum: tough sheath, attached to underlying bone via perforating fibers
  10. Sharpey’s fibres: thick bundles of collagen from periosteum to bone ECM
  11. endosteum in central (Haversian) canal
  12. spongy bone (cancellous bone)
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22
Q

What are the 6 characteristics of spongy bone?

A
  1. always interior and protected by compact bone
  2. does not contain osteons (unlike compact bone) but trabeculae instead. Does contain osteocytes in lacuna with canaliculi
  3. trabeculae: arrangement of lamellae in an irregular lattice of thin columns of bone. Help protect and support bone
  4. composed of spicules (a minute sharp-pointed object or structure that is typically present in large numbers, such as a fine particle of ice)
  5. air spaces: reduces weight of bone
  6. function: shock-absorbing, not weight-bearing
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23
Q

What are the characteristics of bone marrow?

A
  1. part of medullary cavity/epiphysi
  2. develops from primary ossification center during bone development, after osteoclasts break down spongy bone trebeculae
  3. yellow bone marrow: fatty BM
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24
Q

What are the 2 methods of bone development?

A
  1. endochondral ossification

2. intramembranous ossification

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25
Q

What is endochondral ossification and what are the steps?

A
  • replacement of cartilage by bone
    1. growth of hyaline cartilage model: chondrocytes secrete ECM, hypertrophy (grow in size), ECM calcifies
    2. primary ossification center (primary marrow space): a region where bone tissue will replace most of the cartilgae (becomes medullary cavity). Primary ossification proceeds inward, starting from nutrient artery penetrating perichondrium. Spongy bone is broken down by osteoclasts to leave medullary cavity
    3. secondary ossification center (epiphyseal): develops when epiphyseal artery enters epiphyses (at birth). Spongy bone remains and secondary ossification proceeds outward from center of epiphysis toward bone
26
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

– flat bones

27
Q

What is the metaphysis?

A

-the epiphyseal growth plate, where growth in length (height) occur

(Epiphyseal side)
1. zone of resting cartilage (reserve): found nearest epiphysis, scattered resting chondrocytes don’t function in bone growth. Chondrocytes anchor epiphyseal plate to epiphysis
2. zone of proliferating cartilage (cell proliferation): larger chondrocytes, undergo interstitial growth as they divide and secrete ECM. Replace those that die at diaphyseal side of epiphyseal plate
3. zone of hypertrophic cartilage (cell hypertrophy): large, maturing chondrocytes arranged in columns
4. zone of calcified cartilage (calcification): only a few cells thick, mostly dead chondrocytes because ECM around them has calcified. Osteoclasts dissolve calcified cartilage, osteoblasts and capillaries invade from diaphsis. Osteoblasts lay down bone ECM to replace calcified cartilage (endochondral ossification). Zone of calcified cartilage = “new diaphysis”
(Diaphyseal side)

28
Q

What is interstitial growth?

A

growth of length by endochondral ossification: cartilage model grows by continuous cell division of chondrocytes accompanied by further secretion of cartilage ECM
-interstitial growth = “grows from within” and results in an increase in length

29
Q

What is appositional growth?

A

growth of thickness by the addition of ECM to the periphery of the model by new chondroplasts that develop from the perichondrium (growth of outer surface towards inner of central Haversian canal)

30
Q

What is the difference between cartilage growth and bone growth?

A
  • cartilage grows and thickens by both interstitial and appositional growth
  • bone can only thicken by appositional growth
31
Q

What are the 8 nutritional and hormonal factors of bone growth?

A
  1. calcium & phosphate: for growing and bone remodeling
  2. Vitamin A: stimulates activity of osteoblasts
  3. Vitamin C: synthesis of collagen (main bone protein)
  4. Vitamin D: increases absorption of calcium from foods in GI tract into blood
  5. calcitonin: affects bone remodeling
  6. growth hormone (from pituitary gland): needed to produce insulinlike growth factors, which stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at epiphyseal plate and in periosteum, and enhance synthesis of proteins
  7. sex steroids: increase osteoblast activity, synthesis of bone ECM, responsible for growth spurt
  8. parathyroid hormone: stimulate osteoblasts
32
Q

What are synovial joints?

A

capsular joints with lubricated cavity (synovial cavity)

33
Q

What is diarthrosis?

A

movable joints

34
Q

What are the 8 parts of synovial joint anatomy?

A
  1. articular cartilage
  2. joint cavity
  3. synovial fluid
  4. articular capsule
  5. articular disc
  6. meniscus
  7. tendon (synovial) sheaths
  8. ligaments
  9. bursa
35
Q

What is articular cartilage of synovial joints?

A

hyaline cartilage that covers bone surfaces, reduces friction between bones and helps absorb shock

36
Q

What is the joint cavity of synovial joints?

A

space surrounded by a CT capsule that connects the articulating bones

37
Q

What is synovial fluid?

A

(ov = egg) consists of hyaluronic acid and interstitial fluid.
-forms a thin film over the surfaces within the articular capsule - reduces friction by lubricating joints, absorbs shocks, supplies oxygen and nutrients while removing carbon dioxide and wastes from chondrocytes in articular cartilage (cartilage is avascular tissue so it needs help), contains phagocytic cells to remove debris and microbes

38
Q

What are the 2 parts of the articular capsule of synovial joints?

A
  • thin, fairly loose envelope around the joint. 2 parts:
    1. outer fibrous membrane: dense irregular CT (collagen fibers) that attaches to periosteum of bones, flexible
    2. inner synovial membrane: areolar CT (elastic fibers) that includes accumulations of adipose tissue that vary in thickness, “articular fat pads”
39
Q

What is the articular disc of synovial joints?

A

fibrocartilage disc (not covered by synovial membrane) that separates the synovial joint cavity into superior and inferior compartments, each with a synovial membrane. Ex: TMJ

40
Q

What is the meniscus of synovial joints?

A
  • incomplete discs partially divide the joint
  • function: shock absorption and weight distribution over a greater contact surface
  • Ex: knee joint
41
Q

What is the tendon (synovial) sheaths of synovial joints?

A
  • tubelike bursae that wrap around tendons
  • reduce friction at joints
  • Ex: tendons of wrist, angle, fingers, toes)
42
Q

What are ligaments?

A
  • dense regular/irregular CT, noncontractile (unlike muscles)
  • function: binds bone to bone
  • damage to ligaments = sprain
43
Q

What are the bursa of synovial joints?

A
  • saclike structures
  • function: strategically situated to alleviate friction around some joints
  • Ex: shoulder and knee
44
Q

What are the 6 types of joints?

A
  1. gliding/planar joint
  2. hinge joint
  3. pivot joint
  4. condyloid joint
  5. saddle joint
  6. ball-and-socket joint
45
Q

What are the characteristics of gliding/planar joints?

A
  • “planar” - articulated surfaces are flat or slightly curved
  • motion: many biaxial and like condyloid joints
  • ex: intercarpal joints at wrist, intertarsal joints at ankle, sternoclavicular joints, sternocostal joints, vertobrocostal joints
46
Q

What are the characteristics of hinge joints?

A
  • convex surface fits into concave surface
  • motion: open and close like a hinged door - monoaxial (motion around 1 axis), flexion (bending) and extension (straightening)
  • ex: knee, elbow, ankle, interphalangeal joints
47
Q

What are the characteristics of pivot joints?

A
  • rounded or pointed surface fits into a ring formed partly by bone and partly by a ligament
  • motion: monoaxial, rotation
  • ex: atlanto-axial and radioulnar joints
48
Q

What are the characteristics of condyloid joints?

A
  • (condyl = knuckle), ellipsoidal joint - oval-shaped projection fits into oval-shaped depression
  • motion: biaxial, flexion-extension, abduction-adduction
  • ex: radiocarpal, metacarpophalangeal joints (finger = forward-backward and side-side)
49
Q

What are the characteristics of saddle joints?

A
  • articular surface of one bone is saddle-shaped, and articular surface of other bone “sits” in saddle
  • motion: triaxial; flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation
  • ex: carpometacarpal joint between trapezium and thumb
50
Q

What are the characteristics of ball-and-socket joints?

A
  • ball-like surface fits into cuplike depression
  • motion: triaxial; flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation, circumduction (move in clockward manner)
  • ex: shoulder and hip joints
51
Q

What is flexion, extension, and hyperextension?

A
  • flexion: (flex = bend) decrease in angle between articulating bones
  • extension: (exten = stretch out) increase in angle between articulating bones, often to restore anatomical position after flexing
  • hyperextension: (hyper = excessive) continuation of extension beyond anatomical position
52
Q

What is abduction vs. adduction?

A
  • abduction: (ab = away, duct = lead) movement of a bone away from midline (spread fingers)
  • adduction: (ad = toward, duct = lead) movement of bone toward midline (closed palm)
53
Q

What is circumduction?

A

(circ = circle) movement of the distal end of a body part in a circle; a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction. Ex: moving hand in a circle at wrist joint

54
Q

What is rotation?

A

(rota = revolve) bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis. Ex: turn head side to side for No

55
Q

What is elevation vs. depression?

A
  • elevation (superior): upward movement. Ex: closing the mouth
  • depression (inferior): downward movement. Ex: opening the mouth
56
Q

What is protraction vs. retraction?

A

-protraction (anterior): (to draw forth) movement of a part of the body anteriorly in the transverse plane. Ex: thrust your faw forward
-retraction (posterior): (to draw back) movement of a protracted part of the body back to the anatomical position
with lateral and medial excursion?

57
Q

What is inversion vs. eversion?

A
  • inversion: (turn inward) movement of the sole medially at the intertarsal joints
  • eversion: (turn outward) movement of the sole laterally at the intertarsal joints
58
Q

What is dorsiflexion vs. plantar flexion?

A
  • dorsiflexion: involves bending of the foot at ankle or talocrural joint in the direction of the dorsum (superior surface). Ex: stand on heels
  • plantar flexion: involves bending of the foot at the ankle joint in the direction of the plantar (inferior surface). Ex: stand on toes
59
Q

What is supination vs. pronation?

A
  • supination: movement of forearm at proximal and distal radioulnar joints that turns the palm anteriorly
  • pronation: movement of forearm at proximal and distal radioulnar joints that turns the palm posteriorly
60
Q

What 3 characteristics affect the range of motion?

A

ROM refers to the range through which the bones of a joint can be moved

  1. structure and action of muscles: good fit
  2. structure of the articular surfaces of the bones
  3. strength and tautness of ligaments, tendons, and the joint capsule: tense ligaments restrict ROM and direct movement of the articulating bones

Bio 239 (21 decks)

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