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pe paper 2 > 3.2.3 - Psychology In sport > Flashcards

3.2.3 - Psychology In sport Flashcards

All A Level PE psychology topics (complete)

1
Q

Define Personality.

A

A unique and psychological make-up (Diane Gill)

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2
Q

Describe an Introvert.

A

Someone who is..
- quiet
- keeps to themselves
- prefers to be alone
- prefers individual sports

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3
Q

Describe an Extrovert.

A

Someone who is…
- loud
- sociable
- likes to be around others
- prefers team sports
- can lead

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4
Q

What does Nature vs Nurture mean?

A

Nature - you’re born with it (innate)
Nurture - learned behaviour

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5
Q

Describe Trait Theory.

A

NATURE
- Individuals are born with innate characteristics called traits.
- Behaviour is consistent meaning the person will behave the same way in different situations
- Does not take into account personality change

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6
Q

Who created the Trait Theory model?

A

Eyesenck and Cattell

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7
Q

What is the formula for trait theory?

A

B = F(P) - Behaviour is the function of your personality

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8
Q

What is the narrow band approach?

A

Trait theory simplified by 𝗚𝗶𝗿𝗱𝗮𝗻𝗼 - two types of characteristics:
𝗧𝘆𝗽𝗲 𝗔 - Competitive, Works fast, strong desire to succeed, likes control, prone to stress.
𝗧𝘆𝗽𝗲 𝗕 - Non-competitive, works slowly, lacking in desire to succeed, doesn’t enjoy control, less prone to stress

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9
Q

Describe the Social Learning Theory.

A

NURTURE
- we learn different characteristics from other people like our role models, friends and family through a process called 𝗦𝗼𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
- likely to pick up consistent behaviour
- likely to pick up powerful and successful behaviour
- more likely to copy in-person behaviour than online behaviour

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10
Q

What components make up the Social Learning Theory model?

A

Observe → Identify → Reinforce → Copy

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11
Q

What is the formula for Social Learning Theory?

A

B = F(E) - Behaviour is the function of the environment (who you’re learning from)

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12
Q

Describe the Interactionist perspective.

A

NATURE AND NURTURE
- combines trait approach and social learning theory
- aspects of personality can be influenced and developed by both genetic and environmental influences

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13
Q

What is Lewin’s approach to personality?

A
  • Traits we are born with adapt
  • Behaviour adapts to the situation
  • B = F(PxE) - Behaviour is determined by personality and the environment
  • Helps coaches decide how a player will react in a specific situation
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14
Q

What is Hollander’s approach to personality?

A
  • suggests that interaction can predict behaviour
  • target model:
    outer layer- role related behaviour
    second layer - typical response
    middle and final layer - psychological core (the real you)
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15
Q

Define Attitude.

A

A value aimed at an attitude object (something)

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16
Q

Example of a Positive Attitude?

A

“We’re going to win!”
Praise from your coach will allow you to form a positive attitude for your sport and a positive response to your coach

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17
Q

Example of a Negative attitude?

A

“We stand no chance”
Negative role models who do not champion the values of sport when a bad experience within the sport happens such as an injury

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18
Q

What is the name for the 3 attitude components?

A

Triadic Model

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19
Q

What are the 3 aspects of the triadic model in attitude?

A

CAB
C→The Cognitive Component - What you think. Represents your beliefs e.g the belief in your ability to win the game before competing.
A→The Affective Component - Concerns the feelings and emotions of the player and how those feelings are interpreted e.g. “it was hard but I enjoyed it”
B→The Behavioural Component - What you do. Actions and habits of the performer. A player who goes to training and who plays on the weekend shows a good behavioural aspect of their attitude to the sport.

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20
Q

What factors affect attitude change?

A
  • Cognitive dissonance
  • Persuasive communication
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21
Q

What is Cognitive dissonance?

A

New information given to the performer to cause unease and motivation change.

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22
Q

What is an example of cognitive dissonance?

A

Making the training session fun and enjoyable - if it is more fun that you first thought, this may help you change your opinion

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23
Q

What is persuasive communication?

A

An effective communication to promote and affect change.

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24
Q

Factors of persuasive communication?

A
  • communication needs to be relevant, important, and understood by the player
  • person communicating needs to be of a high status
  • time of communication is crucial e.g. after losing a game
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25
Q

Define arousal

A

An state of readiness and alertness varying from deep sleep to intense excitement

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26
Q

What is drive theory?

A
  • Increased drive = increase in performance
    As arousal increases, so does performance
  • P=F(DxH) - personality is the function of drive x habit
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27
Q

What is inverted-u theory?

A

As arousal increases, so does performance, until an optimal point
Anything over this could lead to the performance deteriorating

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28
Q

What is catastrophe theory?

A

-Adaptation of inverted-u theory
- Increase in arousal increases performance up to optimal point but after this point rather than a gradual deterioration, there is a sudden dramatic reduction in performance

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29
Q

Define dominant response

A

The stand out response the performer thinks is correct
(Expert performers have a better dominant response than beginners)

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30
Q

What are the 3 factors that affect arousal?

A

-experience
-personality
-the task

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31
Q

How does experience affect arousal?

A

Experienced performers are used to dealing with pressures and can deal with tasks effectively and can operate with limited information - can operate at high arousal

Beginners may be uncomfortable under pressure - operate at low arousal

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32
Q

How does personality affect arousal?

A

Extroverts perform happily at high arousal as they have naturally low levels of it

Introverts prefer to perform at low arousal as they have naturally high levels

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33
Q

How does the task affect arousal?

A

-Gross skill - large muscle groups - high arousal
- Fine skill - small muscle groups - low arousal
- Complex skill - lots to process - low arousal
- Simple skill - little to process - high arousal

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34
Q

What is the zone of optimal functioning?

A
  • Another adaptation of inverted-u theory (Hanin 1977)
  • Suggests optimal arousal varies depending on player - not everyone’s is the same
  • Rather than an optimal level there is an area or ‘zone’
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35
Q

How does being in ‘the zone’ affect performance?

A
  • things flow effortlessly
  • performer reaches a level of supreme confidence and remains calm under utmost pressure
  • in complete control of actions
  • a smooth effortless performance at highest level - can lead to peak flow experience
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36
Q

What is the peak flow experience?

A

The ultimate intrinsic experience felt by athletes from a positive mental attitude, with supreme confidence, focus and efficiency

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37
Q

What are the factors affecting peak flow experience?

A
  • poor mental preparation and failure to reach optimum arousal levels
  • environmental influences e.g. crowd
  • the effect of injury or fatigue during the game
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38
Q

Define anxiety

A

A state of nervousness and worry, a negative response to a threatening sporting situation

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39
Q

What is competitive trait anxiety?

A
  • when a player feels nerves before most games and could simply be apart of the players genetic makeup
  • displayed regardless of importance of competition - feels nervous every time
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40
Q

What is competitive state anxiety?

A
  • more temporary response to a particular moment within a game
  • higher trait anxiety = higher state anxiety
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41
Q

What is cognitive anxiety?

A
  • psychological - based on irrational thinking of the performer and their perception
  • the performer believes they cannot complete or do not have the ability to complete the task
  • nerves, loss of concentration
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42
Q

What is somatic anxiety?

A
  • physiological - the response of the body to the individual’s belief in lack of ability
  • symptoms - increased HR, sweating, muscular tension, sickness
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43
Q

What are the 3 anxiety measures?

A
  • Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT test)
  • Observation
  • Psychological measures
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44
Q

Define aggression

A

The intent to harm outside the rules; hostile behaviour

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45
Q

Define assertion

A

Well-motivated behaviour within the rules

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46
Q

An example of aggression?

A

two-foot tackle in football

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47
Q

An example of assertion?

A

hard but fair tackle in rugby

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48
Q

What is the grey area?

A

When it is hard to categorise both aggressive and assertive behaviour
e.g. in boxing punching your opponent scores you points - but by punching your opponent you intent is to harm , so it is in the grey area

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49
Q

What are some reasons for aggression?

A
  • losing
  • poor performance by the individual or team mate
  • disagreement with the referee
  • a hostile crowd
  • pressure of success
  • a high-pressure game
  • being fouled
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50
Q

What are the 4 theories of aggression?

A
  • aggressive cue hypothesis
  • social learning theory
  • instinct theory
  • frustration aggression hypothesis

As IF - revision tip

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51
Q

What is aggressive cue hypothesis? ( Berkowitz)

A
  • aggression is a learned tigger
  • increased frustration - increased arousal levels and a drive towards aggressive responses
    Examples of cues - corner kick, away sporting venue, bats boxing gloves
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52
Q

What is social learning theory in aggression (Bandura) ?

A
  • suggests aggression is a learned response
  • observe - identify - reinforce- copy
  • aggression more likely to be repeated if live and consistent
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53
Q

What is instinct theory (freud and lorenz)?

A
  • all performers born with an aggressive instinct that will surface with enough provocation - it is spontaneous and innate
  • they can surface after a bad foul - you may defend yourself and you feel you could have been injured - after an aggressive act, the athlete needs to calm down (catharsis)
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54
Q

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

A
  • suggests that inevitable aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the performer becomes frustrated
  • e.g. being blocked from winning/ scoring goals - builds up frustration (which will turn into aggression)
  • built up frustration can be reduced if aggressive act is carried out by the performer, without this, it could lead to even more frustration and aggressive drive
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55
Q

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

A
  • suggests that inevitable aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the performer becomes frustrated
  • e.g. being blocked from winning/ scoring goals - builds up frustration (which will turn into aggression)
  • built up frustration can be reduced if aggressive act is carried out by the performer, without this, it could lead to even more frustration and aggressive drive
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56
Q

What is catharsis?

A
  • letting off steam
  • experience once player has had a chance to get rid of aggressive inclination
  • more aggression may occur if the player does not get a chance to experience catharsis
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57
Q

What is motivation?

A

DEF - a drive to succeed

It is the external stimuli and internal mechanisms that drive and direct behaviour

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58
Q

What is intrinsic motivation?

A
  • comes from within the performer - the inner drive
  • feeling of pride and satisfaction at completing a task
  • e.g. pass my tap exam
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59
Q

What is extrinsic motivation?

A
  • comes from an outside source - coach
  • can be presented in 2 different ways:

tangible rewards
intangible rewards

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60
Q

What are tangible rewards?

A
  • physical rewards that can be touched/held
    -e.g. trophies, money, medals, certificate
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61
Q

What are intangible rewards?

A
  • non-physical
  • praise, encouragement, self satisfaction, beating personal best, sense of pride, achieving a goal
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62
Q

Impact of extrinsic motivation?

A
  • if over -used = loss in value of incentive
  • player may play to get reward and not for the true value of the game
  • could lead to cheating to get rewards - win at all costs attitude
  • extrinsic motives can undermine the intrinsic
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63
Q

Impact of intrinsic motivation?

A
  • better than extrinsic = stronger and longer lasting

both types of motivation can be maintained by using the following strategies:
- making activity fun and enjoyable
- pointing out health benefits of sport
- breaking down skill to allow success
- pointing out the role models to give players aspiration
- giving the players a sense of responsibility
- setting goals/targets that are achievable

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64
Q

What is achievement motivation?

A

Looks at how much desire a player has to keep on trying to succeed

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65
Q

What is the NACH personality dimension?

A

NEED TO ACHIEVE
- keep on trying
- welcome competition
- take risks
- confident
- task persistent
- attribute success internally
- welcome feedback and evaluation
- base their actions on trying to seek pride and satisfaction
- not afraid to fail
- want to improve and be the best

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66
Q

What is the NACH personality dimension?

A

NEED TO ACHIEVE
- keep on trying
- welcome competition
- take risks
- confident
- task persistent
- attribute success internally
- welcome feedback and evaluation
- base their actions on trying to seek pride and satisfaction
- not afraid to fail
- want to improve and be the best

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67
Q

What is the NAF personality dimension?

A

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE
- a need to avoid competition and seek safe and secure options rather than take risks
- give up easily
- don’t like feedback and evaluation
- take the easy options
- lack confidence

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68
Q

What is interaction?

A

The combination of the situation and personality factors that decide the level of achievement motivation

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69
Q

What is the equation for achievement motivation?

A

drive to succeed - the fear of failure

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70
Q

What strategies may a coach use to help players develop the NACH?

A
  • Reinforcement
  • Attribute success internally
  • Allowing success
  • Improving confidence
  • Goal setting
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71
Q

What is achievement goal theory?

A
  • suggests that motivation and task persistence depend on the goals set by the performer and how they measure success
  • goals can be set to include an outcome e.g. beating opposition - it doesn’t matter how the result is reached as long as the goal is reached
  • if the performer is successful = pride and satisfaction
  • if the performer fails = loss confidence
72
Q

Define confidence

A

A belief in the ability to master a task

73
Q

What are the two types of confidence?

A

trait confidence
state confidence

74
Q

What is trait confidence ?

A

A belief in the ability to do well in a range of sports

(innate, born with it, stable aspect of personality, relates to own belief in ability to succeed)

75
Q

What is state confidence?

A

A belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment
e.g. back tuck in trampolining

76
Q

What does Vealey’s model look at?

A

The influence of trait confidence, state confidence, the situation, and the competitive orientation of the performer on confidence

77
Q

Define competitive orientation

A

=competitiveness - the degree to which performers are drawn to a challenging situation

78
Q

What is the objective sporting situation?

A
  • sporting context
  • what type of sport/activity
  • e.g. you may have a good level of confidence in dance but a different level of confidence in football
79
Q

What is the sports confidence state?

A
  • competitiveness and trait confidence impact on state confidence
  • confidence in a specific situation = self-efficacy
  • low competitiveness + low trait confidence = low state confidence
80
Q

What is the subjective outcome?

A
  • how do we feel about what has happened
  • satisfaction if we have done well or disappointment if we haven’t
  • has impact on trait and state confidence
  • may lead to competitive orientation
81
Q

Key points to Vealey’s model?

A
  • suggests that gaining confidence in one sport could lead to improved confidence in another
  • someone who has done well with high confidence with have a further increase in confidence
  • athlete who hasn’t done well due to low confidence will see a further decrease in confidence
  • improved confidence may increase competitiveness
  • the more confident you are, the more likely you are to have a positive performance
82
Q

Define and explain self-efficacy

A

The belief in your ability to master a specific sporting situation

It affects the confidence of both individual players and those within a team - confidence affects performance

83
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

When the performer experiences a sense of satisfaction and inner pride from success (occurs as a result of increased confidence)
e.g. scoring a goal

The willingness to compete and persist with the activity will also increase

84
Q

Who looked at self-efficacy?

A

Bandura (1977)

85
Q

What are the factors affecting self-efficacy?

A
  • Performance accomplishments
  • Vicarious experience
  • Verbal persuasion
  • Emotional arousal
86
Q

What are performance accomplishments?

A
  • what you have achieved already
  • self-efficacy is influenced by past experiences
  • e.g. you beat a team 4-0, so you would feel confident you could beat them again
  • PA can be enhanced if the players not only won but also enjoyed the experience too
87
Q

What is vicarious experience?

A
  • seeking others do the task
  • watching others do the same and be successful
  • e.g. watching a gymnast doing a vault successfully can give you the confidence to try the vault yourself
88
Q

What is verbal persuasion?

A
  • encouragement from others
  • the power of reinforcement and encouragement
  • gives players the incentive and confidence to repeat a successful attempt
  • praise from people held in high esteem (coach, parent) = even more significant
  • builds confidence
89
Q

What is emotional arousal?

A
  • a perception of the effects of anxiety on performance
  • dealing with emotion when close to achieving win
  • key to emotional arousal is how the performer perceives the increased arousal before and during the activity
  • teams/players that deal with arousal better, get better results

good perception - we’ve got this
bad perception- what if we lose now

90
Q

Methods to improve confidence?

A
  • control arousal through stress management techniques
  • accurate demonstrations
  • point out past successful experiences
  • support, praise and encouragement
  • attainable goals
  • attainable role models
  • mental practice
  • one on one coaching
91
Q

Impact of home field advantage on confidence?

A
  • balance between confidence and anxiety
  • home crowd can increase confidence of the home team but increase the level of anxiety of the away team
  • away team could see more fouls due to anxiety + less effective performance
  • home team more likely to win due to home crowd motivation = increased confidence
  • home = familiar , no travel
  • home crowd can cause functional assertive behaviour = more drive + assertion + correct choice of response when playing
  • BUT home team could have more pressure to win and may “choke” in big games
92
Q

What does BEDTOP stand for? (social facilitation?)

A

The Behavioural Effects Due To Others Present

93
Q

Define social facilitation

A

When the presence of the crowd facilitates/benefits the performance - aids the performance

94
Q

Define social inhibition

A

When the presence of the crowd inhibits/hinders the performnce

95
Q

What are the 4 types of others (social facilitation)

A
  • The audience
  • Co-actors
  • The competitors
  • Social reinforcers
96
Q

What does Zajonc’s model suggest?

A
  • Audience and co-actors - passive presence as they don’t have a direct influence on performance but could increase arousal and drive
  • Competitors and social reinforcers - interactive presence as they have a direct impact on performance
  • Beginners may not be able to handle the pressure - anxiety and arousal increase which inhibits performance
  • Experts can handle pressure - anxiety and arousal increase which facilitate and enhance performance
  • The same occurs with the complexity of the skill - simple skills = little info to process = benefits performance
97
Q

What is evaluation apprehension?

A

DEF - The perceived fear of being judged

  • player may be observed by someone of great significance e.g. scouts
  • could increase motivation and so performance is improved OR it could increase anxiety and arousal and performance may be inhibited
  • the effects of evaluation apprehension can differ depending on who is watching
98
Q

What are the ways of preventing social inhibition?

A
  1. Getting players familiar with being in front of a crowd
  2. Gradually introducing evaluation
  3. Improving focus and concentration
99
Q

How can a coach get players familiar with playing in front of an audience?

A

By training with a crowd so they are used to being watched and can filter out distraction - process of familiarisation

100
Q

How can a coach gradually introduce evaluation?

A
  • start with informal conversations
  • could lead to more formal forms of assessment such as statistics and interviews
101
Q

How can a coach help improve focus and concentration?

A

By filtering out distraction and improving selective attention

102
Q

What are the characteristics of group dynamics?

A
  1. A collective identity - e.g. same uniform
  2. Interaction - each team member knows what their specific role is
    and what tasks they need to carry out e.g. defenders and attackers
  3. Communication - helps interaction - verbal and non-verbal communication (e.g. hand gestures, waving, pointing, looks)
  4. A shared goal/purpose - increases motivation
103
Q

What are the stages of Tuckman’s model (1965)?

A
  1. Forming - becoming familiar with each other and forming relationships
  2. Storming - stage of potential conflict, may be in competition with each other for roles e.g. captain
  3. Norming - any conflicts are resolved , team settles down and co-operates - they start working together to form the ‘norm’
  4. Performing - working and interacting towards the same goal - team members understand each other and work well with each other to gain success
104
Q

Define cohesion

A

The tendency for individuals to work together to achieve their goals - the forces that keep the group members on task

105
Q

What are the 2 types of cohesion?

A

Task cohesion, Social cohesion

106
Q

What is task cohesion?

A
  • individuals work together to achieve an end result
  • can override problems with social cohesion
  • no task cohesion - poor results
  • task cohesion provides motivation for the team
107
Q

What is social cohesion?

A
  • may socialise away from the sport
  • how they work with one another and trust each other
  • may improve communication and team spirit
  • BUT could form sub-groups/cliques
108
Q

What are carron’s antecedents?

A

Influences on team members that will help them work together

These include:
1. Environmental factors - size of the group, time available, age and gender
2. Personal factors - similarity of the group - aspirations, opinions, values, characteristics, group satisfaction
3. Leadership factors -leadership style and relationship of coach
4. Team factors - common will to win, how long the team has been together, common experiences in victory and defeat (more success means the team member will want this to continue and so cohesion will increase)

109
Q

What is the equation for actual productivity?

A

actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes

110
Q

What is actual productivity?

A

The outcome of the group performance - how did they perform

111
Q

What is potential productivity?

A

The best performance based on player ability and group resources - best possible outcome

112
Q

What are faulty processes?

A

All of the things that can go wrong/prevent the team from reaching their full potential

113
Q

What 2 things do faulty processes branch into?

A
  • Co-ordination problems
  • Motivation problems
114
Q

What do co-ordination problems involve?

A
  • Tactics (failure to listen to coach/ use wrong tactics)
  • Strategies
  • Communication (failure to communicate)
  • Interaction (team players may misunderstand their role within the team)
115
Q

What do motivation problems involve?

A
  • social loafing
  • ringlemann effect
  • arousal levels (too much or too little)
116
Q

Define social loafing

A

Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to lack of performance identification when individual efforts are not recognised

-players feel undervalued
-efforts not recognised
-coast through game
-hide behind team members who may cover for them
-take easy options within game
-limited contribution

117
Q

What causes social loafing?

A

-lack of confidence
-negative attitude
-not liking position they have been asked to play
-coach/captain displaying poor leadership
-may not understand their role
-goals may be too general and lack meaning
-cliques may have been formed

118
Q

What is the ringelmann effect?

A
  • a study conducted over a century ago
  • tug of war experiment - found that as the size of the team increased, individual effort decreased
  • individuals tried hard when their efforts were highlighted and recognised but reduced when they were in a team of 8
119
Q

Ways to avoid social loafing?

A
  • coach recognises + rewards efforts of players
  • giving players specific roles within the team
  • use statistics to highlight individual performance
  • goal setting - SMART targets
  • video analysis - feedback to evaluate and assess performance
  • coach can avoid situations where social loafing can happen e.g. reducing numbers of players per group in training
  • keep fitness levels and conditioning up to standards
120
Q

Define stress

A

The response of the individual to a threat / threatening situation

121
Q

What is positive stress?

A

Eustress = when the response to a threat is overcome and the feeling of success increases confidence for future performances

122
Q

Examples of stressors?

A
  • injury
  • an important match/performance
  • playing against really good opponents
  • playing to get reward - e.g. prize/money
  • fear of failure - caused by own pressure or pressure from others
123
Q

What is cognitive stress?

A
  • negative effect of stress
  • psychological - brings negative thoughts and feelings
  • player may experience fear of failure and worrying about letting the coach down with a poor performance
124
Q

Define attentional narrowing

A

As arousal and anxiety levels increase, the ability to take in information and cues from the environment decreases so important information may be missed at higher levels of stress

125
Q

What is somatic stress?

A
  • negative effect of stress
  • physiological - the response of the body to stress
  • increased HR
  • increase in sweating
  • nausea
  • muscular tension - causing inaccurate or weak attempts of skills
126
Q

Cognitive stress management techniques?

A
  • thought stopping
  • positive self-talk
  • imagery
  • visualisation
  • mental rehearsal
  • attentional control and cue utilisation
  • attentional wastage
  • attentional control
    -psychological skills training
127
Q

What is thought stopping?

A
  • when negative and irrational thoughts occur, performer uses a learned action or trigger to remove them
  • simple movement or a rehearsed action that is linked to the negative thought
  • redirects attention to the task at hand
    e.g. cricketer redirection attention to pitch of the ball when batting
128
Q

What is positive self-talk?

A
  • replacing negative thoughts with more positive ones
  • helps player focus on a tactic or instruction from the coach or to overcome a weakness
  • self-talk can overcome a bad habit
129
Q

What is imagery?

A
  • recreating a successful image of the action from a past performance when a skill was performed successfully
  • player can recall this movement in the mind which builds confidence in their current situation
  • helps to avoid stressful situations - imagining a calm place
  • can be internal (emotions involved in the skill) or external (environment e.g.details of the pitch)
130
Q

What is visualisation?

A
  • uses a mental image of the skill - an image perfected while performing the skill successfully in training
  • image is locked in and re-lived when skill is performed in competition
  • players can also visualise negative feelings they may feel in competition in training so they are familiar with dealing with a more stressful environment
  • can be internal or external
131
Q

What is mental rehearsal?

A
  • the process of going over movements of a task in the mind before the performance takes place
  • useful for trampolinists, gymnasts, dancers
  • rehearsed in order to help learn routine
  • stress reduced - athlete is more likely to remember routine
132
Q

What is attentional control and cue utilisation?

A
  • aiming to keep stress and arousal low so more cues can be taken in from the environment
  • stress + arousal ⬆ = ability to take in info reduces - 𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗻𝗮𝗿𝗿𝗼𝘄𝗶𝗻𝗴
  • 𝗰𝘂𝗲 𝘂𝘁𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 = the ability to process information is directly linked to the level of arousal
  • 𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗼𝗹 = the idea of using the correct style (Niddeffer) , chosen at the right time - will lower stress and so enhance performance
133
Q

What is attentional wastage and how can one avoid this?

A

𝗔𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝘄𝗮𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗴𝗲 - at high levels of stress and arousal, limited information is able to be processed and this may cause important information to be missed

Avoiding attentional wastage:
- Niddeffer(1976) suggests a performer can use one of the 4 attention styles that suit the situation

→Broad - when a number of cues can be identified (e.g. position of players within a game)
→Narrow - when it is is best to focus on one or two cues (e.g. golfer concentrating on putting into hole)
→External - when information is drawn from the environment
→Internal - when information is used from within the performer

134
Q

What is psychological skills training?

A
  • performer can train and practice using any of the methods explained as cognitive stress management techniques
  • most pro clubs employ a sports psychologist
  • players can be guided through aspects of visualisation and imagery
135
Q

Somatic stress management techniques?

A
  • biofeedback
  • progressive muscle relaxation
  • centring
136
Q

What is biofeedback?

A
  • measuring devices to help the athlete recognise the physical changes that occur when stress occurs

for example:
→HR monitors
→Galvanic skin response - measures increase in electrical activity when sweating
→Electromyography - measures muscular tension with electrodes taped to the skin

Athletes learn to recognise when physiological changes happen eventually without the need of these devices
Once this occurs, the performer can use techniques to calm and reduce their stress levels e.g. imagery

137
Q

What is progressive muscle relaxation?

A

→physical technique with the use of recorded instructions
→altering between a state of tension and relaxation in the same muscle group

  • groups of muscles that are tensed, held and then relaxed are worked progressively from the periphery of the body to the core
  • arms, legs, shoulders may be worked on before the core muscles
138
Q

What is centring?

A

→ a form of breathing control
→ relaxing the shoulders and chest while concentrating on the slow movement of the abdominal muscles when taking deep and controlled breaths

  • deep, slow and controlled breathing diverts the attention away from the stressful situation once the technique has been mastered
  • can be used quickly by a performer
139
Q

Definition of a leader?

A

Someone who influences you towards achieving your goals and plays a role in maintaining effort and motivation by inspiring the team and setting targets/goals.

140
Q

What are the 2 types of leader?

A

Prescribed
Emergent

141
Q

What is a prescribed leader?

A
  • appointed from outside the group
  • may be appointed from another group or higher authority
  • happens because the team may need new ideas and methods to achieve success
    e.g. manager of football team
142
Q

What is an emergent leader?

A
  • a leader appointed from the existing group
    e.g. captain of the team
143
Q

Examples of leader qualities?

A
  • charisma
  • communication
  • interpersonal skils
  • empathy
  • experience
  • inspirational
  • confidence
  • organisational skills

Revision tip - 3C’s, 2E’s, 2I’s, 1O

144
Q

What are the 3 leadership styles?

A

Autocratic (task-orientated)
Democratic (person-orientated)
Laissez-faire

145
Q

What is the autocratic style?

A
  • leader makes all decisions and dictates instructions
  • concern of leader is to get results and reach targets
  • will make a plan and tell team to follow plan to win
  • will remain with team throughout performance to ensure plan is put into place and the players do not switch off
146
Q

What is the democratic style?

A
  • a more sympathetic approach
  • seeks opinions of the group before making a decisions
  • person-orientated style
  • offers empathy to listen to players for their ideas
  • continues to work even when the coach/leader isn’t present
147
Q

What is the laissez-faire style?

A
  • leader does very little and leaves the group to it
  • the leader may tell the players what he/she wants from the training session but then goes away and attends to other business
  • safe in knowledge that senior players or other training staff will carry out the session and plan to win the next game
  • less motivated players - stop working when this style used
148
Q

What is Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership?

A
  • took into account ‘the situation’
  • suggested that the autocratic/ task-orientated style of leadership is used in two opposite situations; good and bad
  • should be used in: favourable situation = when everything is good
    least favourable situation = when everything is bad

BUT in a moderately favourable situation (the in between) use a person-orientated style instead

149
Q

What is a most favourable situation?

A
  • leader has respect
  • good support within group
  • group is of high ability
  • high levels of motivation
  • task is clear to the team
  • harmony between leader and group
150
Q

What is a least favourable situation?

A
  • hostility between team members
  • little respect for leader
  • group has low ability
  • team members do not support each other
  • motivation is low
  • task is unclear
  • leader is weak
151
Q

What is a moderately favourable situation?

A
  • there is a need or preference for consultation within the group
  • motivation is moderate
  • limited support
  • group has reasonable ability
152
Q

What does Chelladurai’s multidimensional model of leadership state?

A
  • suggests a leader must use interactive approach to balance aspects of the situation, the leader and the group
  • the more the leader uses a style that matches the situation and the needs of the group, the more satisfaction from performance

required behaviour= determined by situation
preferred behaviour = the performers ideal leader
actual leader behaviour = leaders actions towards performers

153
Q

In Chelladurai’s principle, what are aspects of the situation to consider?

A

This includes the type of task:
- was it an individual sport or team game
- was it a simple/basic skill or a complex skill
- how much time was available
- the size of the group
- danger elements of the task

154
Q

In Chelladurai’s principle, what are aspects of the group to consider?

A
  • are the group male or female? (autocratic-men, democratic-women)
  • are the performers beginner or advanced?
  • what is the age of the group?
155
Q

In Chelladurai’s principle, what are the aspects of the leader to consider?

A

communication, organisation skills, charisma e.t.c.

Once the leader, the group and the situation have been assessed, the leader can then choose how to behave within the group

e.g.
The required behaviour - may involve being autocratic during a quick break in play
The actual behaviour - may be chosen to match both the situation and the needs of the group
The preferred behaviour - the result of what the group want/prefer

156
Q

Define attribution.

A

A perception of the reason for an outcome of an event (what went right and wrong)

Weiner (1974) classified the reasons for winning and losing and placed them on a matrix.

157
Q

Why is attribution important?

A
  • vital to maintain motivation and effort
  • one of the most important factors in task persistence
158
Q

In Weiner’s model, what is the locus of causality?

A

The reasons for winning and losing can either be internal or external.

Internal = from within the perfromer
External = out of the performers control

159
Q

Internal locus of causality examples?

A
  • lack of motivation
  • distractions
  • ability
  • health
  • skill level
  • effort
160
Q

External locus of causality examples?

A
  • referee
  • surface
  • weather conditions
  • opposing team’s tactics
  • luck
161
Q

In Weiner’s model, what is the stability dimension?

A

Reasons for winning and losing can also be changeable in time and so can be unstable and stable

Stable attribute = unlikely to change in the short-term but can change over time
Unstable attribute = can change in a short amount of time

162
Q

Where is ability in Weiner’s model?

A

An internal-stable factor - ability is within the performer and is not likely to change in the short-term

163
Q

Where is effort in Weiner’s model?

A

An internal-unstable factor - only the individual can determine the amount of application they exert this can vary in each performance.

164
Q

Where is task difficulty in Weiner’s model?

A

An external-stable factor - in some sports the challenge is very similar in each event e.g. bowling.

165
Q

Where is luck in Weiner’s model?

A

An external-unstable factor - environmental, but changeable - the individual cannot control it and it may vary week upon week e.g. ball hitting tree and then back onto fairway in golf.

166
Q

What is self-serving bias?

A

Using external and/or unstable reasons for losing
- helps to promote self-esteem, task persistance, and can maintain high effort levels

e.g. Coaches and players should attribute losing to things that are either external and/or can be changed. Never give reasons for losing that are stable and internal as players may lose motivation and learned helplessness can occur.

167
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

Using internal, stable reasons for losing

  • when self-doubt or lack of belief in ability begins to affect the player - decreases confidence
  • maybe general and lead to athlete feeling as though they are bad at every sport, or , may be specific to a sport/situation in sport
  • developed through negative feedback and critisism from the coach
168
Q

Define attribution retraining and how it can be executed by a coach.

A

Changing the reasons given for success and failure.

  • coach should use Weiner’s model to change reasons
  • coach should provide motivation through reinforcement
  • setting achievable goals/targets
  • stress any individual improvements no matter how small

These will improve player self-esteem and confidence.

169
Q

How can learned helplessness be improved?

A
  • attribution retraining
  • using cognitive and somatic stress management techniques such as imagery and centring
  • set achievable targets
  • praise from coach (even for small things)
170
Q

What is mastery orientation?

A

A state of mind when the performer is high in confidence (believes in ability) - The performer believes success is repeatable, failure is temporary.

171
Q

What is goal setting?

A
  • One of the strategies to help reduce the affects of social loafing and improve cohesion.
  • Goal setting is widely used in sport due to the number of benefits it has for the performer/athlete.
172
Q

Benefits of goal setting?

A

→ Increase motivation - players keep on trying/develop task persistence due to the target/goal/aim to achieve or reach. Achieving the target gives a sense of pride and satisfaction = increase in intrinsic motivation.

→ Improving confidence - due to an improvement in technique/performance and a goal/target being reached.

→ Regulating and sustaining effort - as the player is working towards a goal/target they may try harder or train longer in order to achieve. A coach should adjust the target to account for a specific competition or event time-bound.

173
Q

What is an outcome goal (or ‘product’ goal)

A

A goal set against the performance of others based on the end result.
Success-based.

E.g. winning a trophy, coming on top of the league

Not necessarily based on winning e.g. making the top 4 or 5 in the league to achieve European football next season

174
Q

What is a performance goal?

A

Based on the judgement of the athletes previous performance
The goal is set to improve/better the previous performance and has no comparison to other athletes.

E.g. achieving a new PB time in swimming

The process involves breaking down the technique during various parts of the race to focus on specific areas for improvement e.g. pushing off blocks

175
Q

What are process goals?

A

Based on improving technique
Each action of the technique is broken down and training drills are used to improve each area, improving overall performance

176
Q

Goal setting key points?

A

→ Goals should include both performance and process goals and not just focus on outcome.
→ If goals are only focussed on results, this can decrease motivation if success does not happen.
→ Goals should focus on personal improvement for athletes e.g. in a marathon there is only one winner, but there is a chance for everyone to achieve a PB.
→ Performance gaols reduce anxiety in competition and provide motivation.
→ Outcome goals are more likely to cause stress.
→ Short-term goals provide reassurance.

177
Q

What are the SMARTER principles when setting goals?

A

Specific → Goals should be clear, precise and specific to the performer and sport.

Measured → Form of assessment should occur to measure how much progress has been made.

Achievable → The athlete should be able to reach the goal/target with a controlled amount of effort and willingness to achieve.

Realistic → Should be within reach of the performer to promote motivation and challenge resulting in satisfaction and an increase in confidence.

Time-bound → A deadline is set - could be short-term or long-term.

Evaluate → Occurs between performer and coach. E.g. How and when was the goal achieved? Methods that worked well and those that didn’t?.

Re-do → If the goal was not met, the process was slow or the coach thinks it could have gone better, do it again.

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