3.1 - Globalisation of sport in 21st century

Question 1

What years was pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 1

Pre-1780.

Question 2

What was recreation like in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 2

Popular recreation.

Question 3

What are the features of what life was like in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 3

• Limited communications and transports.
• There was widespread literacy: the lower classes were uneducated, with little ability to read or write.
• Cruel or violent existences were the norm for the lower class, the upper class lived in comfort and luxury.
• There was very limited free time as work was based on the land; free time was dictated by the agricultural calendar/seasons; the lower class worked very long hours.
• Class divisions clearly existed; there was a two-tier clearly divided society in existence (upper class and lower class) based on a feudal system.
• People lived in the countryside/rural areas.

Question 4

What was the feudal system?

Answer 4

Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around a relationship derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.

Question 5

What is popular recreation?

Answer 5

The sport and pastimes of people in pre-industrial Britain.

Question 6

What were the characteristics of popular recreation in pre-1780?

Answer 6

Long hours of work meant popular recreation was occasional and therefore restricted to annual events when breaks in the agricultural calendar allowed their participation - festivals/holy days.

With limited transport available, popular recreation activities were local and specific to each community and the area they lived in the countryside.

Activities used natural resources available to them.

Literacy was low among the lower classes so any rules were very basic and applied to a particular community.

Activities were aggressive and male dominated reflecting a harsh society - lots of damage to property and injuries to the participants themselves were evident when participation in mob games occurred.

Wagers were placed by the upper class as part of sporting contests.

Sometimes, the activities participated in by the lower class were ‘functional’ as they were linked to their work requirements (e.g. when employed as footmen which led to race walking as an athletic activity).

Question 7

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the limited transport/communications in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 7

Popular recreation activities were local and specific to each community and the area they lived in the countryside.

Question 8

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the Illiteracy/uneducation in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 8

Literacy was low among the lower classes so any rules were very basic and applied to a particular community.

Question 9

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the harsh society in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 9

Activities were aggressive and male dominated reflecting a harsh society - lots of damage to property and injuries to the participants themselves were evident when participation in mob games occurred.

Question 10

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the seasonal time/long working hours in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 10

Long hours of work meant popular recreation was occasional and therefore restricted to annual events when breaks in the agricultural calendar allowed their participation - festivals/holy days.

Question 11

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the pre-industrial/pre-urban revolutions in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 11

Activities used natural resources available to them.

Question 12

What is a characteristic of popular recreation that reflects the two-tier society/feudal system in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 12

Wagers were placed by the upper class as part of sporting contests.

Sometimes, the activities participated in by the lower class were ‘functional’ as they were linked to their work requirements (e.g. when employed as footmen which led to race walking as an athletic activity).

Question 13

What are 3 examples of sports in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 13

Mob football
Real tennis
Pedestrianism/foot racing

Question 14

What are the characteristics of popular recreation displayed in mob football?

Answer 14

Played by lower class reflecting two-tier divide.

Local - due to limited transport/communications.

Rural - as population at the time lived in villages in the countryside.

Natural resources such as pigs bladder used as society was simple.

Long working hours meant it was only played occasionally - on holy days such as shrove Tuesday.

Male dominated and highly violent and often unruly in nature - reflects conditions at the time.

Illiteracy in lower class - little rules and regulations.

Question 15

Who did mob football become increasingly unpopular with?

Answer 15

Local authorities.

Question 16

Why did mob football get banned?

Answer 16

• They were violent or unruly in nature.
• They led to damage of property.
• They led to injury or death in extreme cases.
• They involved gambling/wagering.
• They were linked to alcohol consumption/drunken behaviour.

Question 17

What was real tennis also called?

Answer 17

‘Royal Tennis’ or ‘the sport of kings’.

Question 18

What were the characteristics of real tennis?

Answer 18

Played by upper classes.

Complex rules as the upper class were educated and highly literate.

They played it to a high moral code so it lacked violence and was instead played in a civilised manner, with opponents mutually respectful of one another.

Plenty of leisure time so they played on a regular basis in expensive, purpose-built facilities using expensive specialist equipment e.g. racquets.

They also had the ability to travel to play real tennis so it was non-local.

It was a skillful game with difficult technical demands, which enabled the upper class to show their ‘superiority’ over the lower class.

Question 19

What was pedestrianism/footracing?

Answer 19

It consisted of footmen (i.e. hired servants) competing as messengers by the upper class/gentry for their speed of movement across open land. The foot racers were allowed to compete against one another, with the gentry wagering on how many miles they could cover in a specified time period.

Racing developed with running/walking allowed and some ‘challenge rules’ introduced.

Success in athletics meant increased social status for a ‘gentleman’ so the upper class were happy to act as patrons to the working-class performers.

The gentry acted as ‘patrons’ of the lower-class runners by setting up races and providing prize money for success.

Question 20

Early athletics in pre-industrial Britain took what form (apart from pedestrianism)?

Answer 20

A festival occasion with individuals organising rural, community festivals containing ‘athletic events’.

An example of this is the ‘Much Wenlock Olympian Games’ with events such as running, hurdles, football and cycling.

Prizes were awarded by upper-class patrons for successful ppts who were mainly from lower class.

Question 21

What were the characteristics of popular recreation linked to Much Wenlock?

Answer 21

Rules were simple/unwritten.

Events were local with people from neighbouring villages joining in with the festivities and competitions which occurred annually once a year.

Set in a rural location.

Betting occured, with wagers placed on the outcomes of races etc.

Question 22

Define foot racing:

Answer 22

A form of competitive running/walking in the 17th and 18 centuries involving feats of endurance. As time progressed, it evolved into pedestrianism/race walking.

Question 23

Define patron:

Answer 23

A member of the gentry who looked after a lower-class performer, e.g. by arranging competitions for them to participate in, putting up prize money and generally looking after the welfare of the performer.

Question 24

Why was the Olympian Class set up by the Wenlock Agricultural Reading Society (WARS)?

Answer 24

To promote moral, physical and intellectual improvements especially in the lower-class people of Wenlock - Participation in outdoor recreation was an important means of doing so with prizes offered for successful ppts to encourage taking part.

Question 25

Who was the secretary of the ‘Olympian Class’ and the driving force behind the Wenlock Olympian Games?

Answer 25

Dr William Penny Brookes - inspired to do so by his work as a doctor and surgeon in the borough town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire.

Question 26

When was the first Wenlock Olympian Games and what did it include?

Answer 26

October 1850.

Athletics and traditional country sports including quoits, football, cricket, running, the hurdles and cycling on penny farthings.

In the early games, there were also some fun events such as the blindfolded wheelbarrow race and ‘Old woman’s race’, with a pound of tea for the winner.

Question 27

Who was Dr William Penny Brookes?

Answer 27

The founder of the Wenlock Olympian Games in 1850.

Question 28

What were important parts of the Wenlock Olympian Games?

Answer 28

Pageantry and celebration.

A band led the procession of flag bearers, officials and competitors as they marched to the event.

Question 29

What happened in November 1860 to the Wenlock Games and its people?

Answer 29

Following a dispute with WARS, the Wenlock Olympian Class separated from WARS and changed its name to the Wenlock Olympian Society, with rifle shooting added to the Games programme the following Year.

Question 30

Why/how were the Olympic games set up?

Answer 30

Baron Pierre de Coubertin visited the Olympian Society in 1890, which held a special festival in his honour. He was inspired by Dr Brookes and went on to establish the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and reform the modern Olympic Games.

Question 31

What does WARS stand for?

Answer 31

Wenlock Agricultural Reading Society.

Question 32

Who founded the Olympic Games?

Answer 32

Baron Pierre de Coubertin.

Question 33

When did the Wenlock Olympian Class separate from WARS and what did they become?

Answer 33

The Wenlock Olympian Society.

Question 34

When and where were the first modern Olympic Games?

Answer 34

Athens - 1896.

Question 35

What was rational recreation?

Answer 35

In the 19th century, these were spots pastimes for the lower classes which were designed by the middle classes to be well ordered, organised and controlled.

Question 36

What was the industrial revolution?

Answer 36

Deemed to have occurred during the mid-18th to mid-19th centuries. This period marked a change in Britain from a feudal, rural society into an industrialised, machine-based, capitalist society, controlled by a powerful urban middle class.

Question 37

What did the industrial revolution lead to?

Answer 37

The migration of people from rural to urban areas - urbanisation.

Question 38

When was rational recreation?

Answer 38

1780-1900.

Question 39

During the first half of the 19th century, what were the effects of the industrial revolution?

Answer 39

Migration of lower class into urban areas looking for work in the new factories being built - led to a loss of space to play traditional mob games and overcrowding.

Lack of leisure time - long 12 hour working days, 6 days a week, the Sabbath (Sunday) was a religious observance ‘day of rest’.

Lack of income - low wages and poverty evident, with little spare income for leisure pursuits.

Poor health - along with poor working and living conditions that led to pollution and a lack of hygiene, also meant little energy to play sport.

Loss of rights - restrictions were placed on mod games and blood sports by changes in criminal laws.

A lack of public provision - no access to private facilities or no personal equipment for the lower classes.

Question 40

How can you remember the initial negative effects of industrialisation?

Answer 40

HITFOR

poor HEALTH and HYGIENE.
lack of INCOME.
lack of TIME.
FACILITY provision was lacking.
OVERCROWDING and lack of space.
loss of RIGHTS.

Question 41

Were the effects of the industrial revolution good or bad in the first half of the 19th century?

Answer 41

Bad.

Question 42

What improvements were there in the second half of the 19th century due to the industrial revolution?

Answer 42

Health and hygiene improved - gradual improvements in living conditions and local council provision of public baths to improve cleanliness and help stop the spread of disease so more energy/willingness to take part in sport.

Gradual increase in wages and more time for sport due to the Factory Acts and Saturday half-days being provided to the workers. (Gradual decrease in working hours).

Development of the new middle class - this changed the ways of behaving and playing sport. It became more acceptable and respectable and was played to a high moral code - they developed strict rules, leagues and competitions, provided facilities/public parks via their involvement with the local council, they gave more time off work, broken time payments, etc.

The influence of ex-public schoolboys via industry, the Church, etc.

The values of athleticism - always trying hard and working to the best of your ability but taking part in the spirit of fair play - spread to the lower classes.

Industrial patronage - factory owners became patrons of sport for the working class by providing support for them to participate leading to the provision for recreation and sport - factory teams were set up, sporting facilities were provided and excursions to the seaside were organised.

Improvements in transport and communications via development of roads and steam trains influenced the distances spectators and players could travel and leagues were established. Fixtures and results could be published in the papers of the time.

It became cheaper to travel so participation in sport and the spectating of sport became more accessible.

Question 43

Who were the middle class in industrial Britain?

Answer 43

Self-made men who took advantage of the new business opportunities available in the newly industrialised Britain.

Question 44

What is athleticism?

Answer 44

Always trying hard and working to the best of your ability but taking part in the spirit of fair play.

Question 45

What is industrial patronage?

Answer 45

Factory teams were set up by factory owners as a way of decreasing absenteeism and encouraging loyalty in the workforce.

Question 46

What is urbanisation?

Answer 46

Large numbers of people migrating/moving from rural areas into towns and cities, seeking regular work in the factories.

Question 47

What are the key features of urbanisation that contributed to the development of sport in the industrial revolution and the time of rational recreation?

Answer 47

Lack of space - Space was premium in cities as there was a lot less than in the countryside. This led to the development of purpose-built facilities (e.g. football grounds).

Large working-class populations - They all needed entertaining resulting in mass spectator numbers at football and rugby matches for the first time.

Loss of traditional sports - Many traditional working-class sports such as mob games were banned in a civilised urban society, so there was a need for new sports to emerge.

Change in working conditions - Initially the working classes worked long hours in the factories and had limited free time, incomes or energy to devote to sport. As this situation improved, sports attendance and participation went up.

Question 48

In what ways did the development of the railways contribute to the development of sport in the rational recreation period?

Answer 48

Movement of teams/spectators - as railways and steam trains enabled faster and further travel, leading to nationwide fixtures developing on a regular basis.

Improved access to different parts of the country - nationwide train travel enabled sport to develop from local to regional to national, with leagues forming, involving clubs from across the country (e.g. Football League).

Cheaper train travel - led to working classes following their teams and sporting heroes home and away.

Improved access to the countryside - activities such as rambling became popular as rural areas were reachable and affordable via train travel.

Question 49

How did the fact that urban industrial society helped to improve education provision for the working class in the second half of the 19th century (post-industrial Britain) improve sport?

Answer 49

Led to improvements in reading and writing abilities so more rules were made and understood.

Question 50

How did communication improvements in the 2nd half of the 19th century improve sport (post-industrial Britain)?

Answer 50

increased the knowledge and awareness of sport - knowing when fixtures were taking place involving their local team, increased knowledge of results of matches involving the team they supported.

Question 51

What did increased communications lead to the emergence of?

Answer 51

Sporting heroes and role models as people could read match reports and relate to their favourite players scoring goals and/or helping to win matches due to their high levels of skill.

Question 52

How did the influence of the Church promote sport?

Answer 52

Encouraged social control through civilised activities diverting people away from less socially acceptable activities such as drinking and gambling.

Church facilities such as halls provided venues for improving the morality of the working classes.

Sport was a good way of promoting Christian values.

The development of the YMCA promoted the healthy body/healthy mind link.

The clergy viewed sport as a good way to increase church attendance and help swell their congregations.

They helped provide more opportunities for sporting involvement through the approval and active involvement of the clergy which gave encouragement for the working classes to participate in rationalised sporting activities such as association football.

They organised teams, set up clubs and organised competitions. (Aston Villa via Villa Cross Methodist Church).

Question 53

How did members of the middle class support the development of sport?

Answer 53

Codification - development of strict rules as public schools and university old boys played a key role in the formation of many national governing bodies (NGB’s) of sport. The middle class took prominent leadership roles in such organisations (clubs and NGB’s).

Competitions - development of leagues and competitions via middle-class involvement in public schools/universities/clubs/NGB’s/factory teams/church teams.

Public provision - The development of public facilities via middles-class philanthropists, factory owners, the church, the passing of government Acts in their role as local politicians.

Increased leisure time - as middle-class factory owners, they gradually gave their workers more leisure time such as Saturday half-day, which allowed more time to watch or to participate in sport.

Move to ‘professionalism’ - the middle class helped in the development of early commercial/professional sport (e.g. acting as agents, promoters in athletics, as factory owners setting up factory teams and paying broken time payments in football).

Question 54

What is codification?

Answer 54

The gradual organisation and defining of the rules (e.g. for the actual playing of a sport, as well as the conduct and behaviour of participants).

Question 55

What are philanthropists?

Answer 55

Kind, generous, middle-class individuals who had a social conscience and were keen to try to provide for a better life among the working class.

Question 56

How did sport spread through the British Empire by public school boys and university old boys?

Answer 56

Teachers developed teams and taught traditional sporting values in schools throughout the Empire.

Industrialists/factory owners set up teams and gave workers time off to play competitive sport nationally and internationally.

Clergy developed church teams or became missionaries and took sport abroad (good for social control/morality, etc.).

Officers in the British army used sport with the armed services and spread sport throughout the Empire.

Diplomats travelled the world and took sport with them (e.g. rugby and cricket).

They formed the national governing bodies of sport (NGB’s) (e.g. RFU) which codified sports and established leagues and competitions which eventually spread internationally as well as nationally.

Question 57

What is public provision?

Answer 57

Local council provision of facilities (e.g. sport/recreational) for the masses to participate.

Question 58

How did public provision and the development of public baths in urban and industrial areas positively influence the opportunities for working-class rational recreation?

Answer 58

Local authorities applied for grants to provide public washing facilities to improve health and hygiene and improve their status as a town (e.g. via the Welsh Houses Act of 1846).

Increased provision was made in the 2nd half of the 19th century for public bath houses with 1st and 2nd class facilities to reflect the social class an individual came from.

Plunge baths developed for swimming/recreational use.

Such involvement in positive physical activity was seen as a means of social control of the working classes, keeping them away from drinking and violence as much as possible. It also helped to improve productivity at work as workers became healthier and less prone to serious diseases and infection.

Question 59

When did NGB’s begin to develop in England?

Answer 59

Mid-to-late 19th century.

Question 60

Why did NGB’s begin to be develop in mid/late 19th century?

What were the factors affecting the formation of NGB’s?

Answer 60

Sport was becoming increasingly more popular with more widespread playing of sport.

More teams and clubs were forming.

More national and international fixtures were being organised.

Leagues and competitions were required for these teams to compete in.

Nationally agreed rules and codification for different sports were required; a single set of rules to play to was required in order to enable ‘fair competition’.

Maintenance of the ‘amateur ideal’ to deal with professionalism and early commercialism of sport and the desire to maintain control of sport among the middle/upper classes.

Question 61

What was rational recreation?

Answer 61

Involves the post-industrial development of sport. It was characterised by a number of features including respectability, regularity, strict administration and codification.

Question 62

What was rational recreation characterised by? (features)

Answer 62

Respectability (non-violent, emphasis on fair play).

Regionally/nationally/regularly played (comps played regionally, nationally and internationally. Watching Saturday afternoon football for the masses was popular in their time off work.

Stringent administration and codification (strict, complex, written rules were set down by NGB’s for the conduct of a sport).

Referees/officials (present to enforce the newly developed rules in sporting contests).

Purpose-built facilities (sport took place in specially constructed grounds, pitches or tracks, often set around urban areas with large populations to draw on for spectators as there was less space available in urban areas).

Skills/tactics based (players had positional roles they became ‘specialist’ in - performers trained to improve their techniques and fitness levels to increase their chances of winning).

Question 63

What is an amateur?

Answer 63

A person who plays sport for the love of it and receives no financial gain.

Question 64

What is a professional?

Answer 64

A person who plays sport for financial gain.

Question 65

What were the values of amateurism in sport in the late 19th century?

Answer 65

‘Manliness’, robustness, striving and physical endeavour.

Appreciating the value of health and fitness.

Appreciating the value of rule-regulated activity.

High moral integrity.

Question 66

What were the characteristics of a ‘gentleman amateur’?

Answer 66

Being a respected member of society with a public school background; high status in sport reflected by high status in society.

Belonging to the social elite, having wealth and plenty of free time for sport.

Participation in sport was viewed as a character-building exercise; training was frowned upon as this would constitute professionalism.

Playing a ‘range of sports’ using their natural talents.

Playing sport to a high moral code - immediate acceptance of rules of the game/refereeing decisions; showed restraint in victory, good humour in defeat; indeed, a ‘referee’ was deemed as largely unnecessary to proceedings as amateurs believed the could govern themselves.

Question 67

What were the positive impacts of a 19th century ‘gentleman amateur’ (amateurism)?

Answer 67

Elite sport was run by and dominated by the upper and middle classes who had high status in sport as well as in society - amateurs held a higher status than professionals at the time!

The code of amateurism was based on sport to clearly set rules put in place by the middle/upper classes that formed many NGB’s.

Amateurism adhered to a code of ethics playing sport to a high set of moral values.

Belonging to the social elite - they had wealth and free time so could afford to play sport purely for the love of it.

Participation in sport was seen as more important than winning and taking part was viewed as a character-building exercise. They played according to their God-given abilities and training was frowned upon as this would constitute professionalism.

The all-rounder was viewed with high regard by the amateurs.

Amateurs were the ‘elite performers’ of the 19th century.

The ‘new middle classes’ admired the cultural values of the upper-class gentleman amateur. They played sport in their free time according to similar principles of amateurism.

Question 68

Compare key features of the gentleman amateur and working-class professionals:

Answer 68

GA - Upper/middle class. Wealthy. Lots of free time. No desire to train to improve performance. High morality: emphasis on taking part/fair play/sportsmanship.

WCP - Working class. Poor. Very little free time due to long working hours. Committed to train and perform as well as possible. Low morality: winning was all important; open to bribes/would cheat to win.

Question 69

What were the positive impacts of 19th century professionalism on sport development?

Answer 69

Working class had to be paid a wage for time off work when representing their factory team as they were so poor - broken time payments emerged.

Early professionals in walking and running races were paid according to results so standards of performance improved as a result of dedicated training.

Earning money from sport was seen as an avenue of social mobility creating determination to succeed.

Professionalism slowly developed at the end of the 19th century with the full onset coinciding with the commercialisation and media coverage of sport in the late 20th century.

Question 70

What were the key features of early 20th century amateurs?

Answer 70

High status - in sport and society.

Controllers of sport - middle and upper classes controlled sport, excluding (e.g. financially) working classes from ‘amateur sports’.

Top performers - more likely that top performers would come from middle or upper classes.

Highly moral - they had sufficient income and leisure time to play sport for the love of it, receiving no payment. They emphasised fair play and sportsmanship.

Question 71

What are the key features of modern day (late 20th century/early 21st century) ‘amateurs’?

Answer 71

Tend to be of lower status (professionals are now of higher status).

Some high-level performers are still not professional.

There has been some blurring of amateur and professional distinctions, with less likelihood of exclusions as society has become more egalitarian - equal and achievement based on merit.

Performance at the top level in most sports is now open to all.

Some amateurs receive finance to pay for training expenses (e.g. National Lottery/Sports Aid money) - could be argued that this enables them to train as full-time athletes in modern-day sport and they do not gain financially from Lottery funding.

Question 72

What are the ‘positives’ of modern-day ‘amateurism’?

Answer 72

Codes of amateurism are still evident in British sport (via fair play and sportsmanship).

It is still viewed positively and promoted in a number of ways - Fair play awards in football, shaking hands and through the Olympics with the Olympic ideal based on principles of amateurism etc.

Sports like Rugby Union maintained their amateurism until late into the 20th century and still have codes of conduct based on such principles e.g. calling the referee ‘Sir’.

Question 73

What factors are responsible for the growth of professional sport and the increased status of professional performers from the 20th century through to modern day?

Answer 73

All classes can compete - no longer a social class barrier, social mobility is far more possible now.

People are now respected for their talents and efforts in reaching the top.

There are high rewards for professionals through media and sponsorship.

Professionals have more time to train (many are full-time sports professionals), leading to higher standards of performance than amateurs in the same sport.

Celebrity status, more media coverage and investment in sport have all led to vast increases in financial rewards available for sportspeople as large numbers of sports have become able to support many professional performers.

Positive role models act as motivators for others to achieve in professional sport.

Money invested into sport enables events and the sports themselves to operate and survive commercially; there has been a general increase in commercial sport and the sponsorship of sport.

More spectators attend matches, with easier, more affordable travel enabling increased spectator numbers at professional sports events.

Question 74

What factors led to the rationalisation and modern-day development of Association Football?

Answer 74

Urbanisation - large no. of people living in one place gave a large captive audience for football. Lack of space led to purpose-built, specialist facilities with terraces to house the high spectator demand.

More free time/increased leisure time - workers spent less time in factories so more time was available to them to watch and play sport (Saturday afternoon at 3pm became the traditional time for Association Football matches).

More disposable income - Improved standards of living via higher wages gave people more money to travel to/play/watch sport.

Improved transport - Trains for fans to travel to ‘away’ fixtures increased regularity of matches so there was a need to leagues and matches to be set up (first FA Cup - 1871/72).

Increased professionalism - opportunities to do sport as job increased. Good chance to leave factory system of work and urban deprivation that accompanied it.

Social class links - middle class influence and approval gave association football more respectability with its emphasis on high morality and sporting etiquette.

Increased organisation - Quickly became highly structured and standardised when in 1863 ex-public schoolboys set up the FA. National rules and codification meant that it was far more controlled with less violence reflecting an increase in a civilised society.

(There is now the use of technology (technological advances) to help ensure that decisions reached are the correct ones).

Question 75

What is the Bosman Ruling?

Answer 75

A european Court of Justice decision made on 15 December 1995 concerning freedom of movement for workers. An important decision as it allowed the free movement of labour in the European Union.It effectively allowed footballers within the EU to move at the end of their contract to another club without a transfer fee being paid.

Question 76

When did the BBC and other companies start using radio and cinema as a means of commercialising Association Football?

Answer 76

1927. (First half of 20th century).

Question 77

How has the max wage of sportspeople in Association changed?

Answer 77

From £4 in 1901 to 100,000’s now. There is a max wage limit which has increased over time.

Question 78

What factors led to the emergence of elite female footballers in modern-day sport?

Answer 78

Equal opportunities - More sports generally available and socially accepted. Sex Discrimination Act passed. War effort from women lead to the breaking down of myths and stereotypes about the physical capabilities of women.

Increased media of women’s football - BT Sport (live coverage of the Women’s Super league (WSL)). Women’s football is part of EA Sports FIFA 16 game.

More female role models in football -Performers, coaches and officials.

More provision via school PE programmes - National Curriculum and extra-curricular opportunities.

Increased approval/encouragement via the FA - They support the women’s national team. The FA Cup Final was held at Wembley for the first time in 2015.

More clubs forming - Local and ‘professional’ levels.

Increased participation via more funding into the game - at grass roots level as well as elite level.

More free time - As the traditional domestic responsibility role has decreased.

Question 79

Who was the first female official in football & when?

Answer 79

Wendy Toms at the end of the 20th century.

Question 80

What has been viewed as a significant step forward in creating a more focused and professional organisational structure for female referees to progress through?

Answer 80

The creation of the ‘Women’s Referee Development Pathway’.

Question 81

Who invented lawn tennis?

Answer 81

The middle class - with the help of Major Walter Clopton Wingfield.

Question 82

When did Major Walter Clopton Wingfield patent his first game of lawn tennis?

Answer 82

23 Feb 1874.

Question 83

What was lawn tennis?

Answer 83

Originally called ‘Sphairistike’ and played on an hourglass shaped court before its name and court shape were quickly replaced.

Question 84

What were the key features of lawn tennis as it developed in the industrial/post-industrial era?

Answer 84

Middle-class intervention - as it was an affordable alternative to real tennis. Private clubs set up.

Played by the middle class - in suburban gardens on lawns big enough to house private tennis courts.

Organised by the middle class - as they had the organisational experience necessary to form their own private clubs.

Use of specialist equipment - mc had sufficient finance to purchase their own equipment. Wingfields ‘kit’.

Use of standardised rules - Wingfields ‘kit’ included a rulebook which helped standardise the game, played to the same rules no matter where it was played.

Played by males and females - tennis allowed respectable social and gender mixing; it was a good, civilised, ‘social game’ which both sexes could play.

Public provision - it eventually spread to the working classes via public parks.

Question 85

What was the open era?

Answer 85

When professional tennis players were allowed to compete alongside amateurs and earn money.

Question 86

Define media:

Answer 86

An organised means of communication by which large numbers of different people can be reached quickly.

Question 87

What is the golden triangle?

Answer 87

Refers to the relationship between sport, business (sponsorship) and media.

Question 88

What is commercialism?

Answer 88

The process of attempting to gain money from an activity e.g. sport.

Question 89

What is sponsorship?

Answer 89

When a company pays for their products to be publicly displayed or advertised, usually as an attempt to increase the sales of their goods.

Question 90

What is merchandising?

Answer 90

The practice in which the brand or image from one ‘product’ is used to sell another, e.g. professional sports teams/performers promote various products.

Question 91

What are characteristics of commercial sport?

Answer 91

Professional sport - high quality, high skill levels.

Sponsorship and business - they go hand-in-hand.

Entertainment - watching sport is part of a mass-entertainment industry; viewing needs to fir into a relatively short time scale.

Contracts - e.g. involving sales of merchandise and bidding for television rights.

Athletes as commodities - e.g. as an asset to companies through product endorsement, which brings increased sales/profits; athletes become well-known role models.

Wide media coverage - and interest in high-profile sports that are visually appealing and have high skill levels, well-matched competition and simple/understandable rules.

Question 92

What are the effects of commercialisation on professional performers?

Answer 92

They receive high incomes for sports participation and commercial activities promoting products, which gives financial security and allows full-time training and competition.

They’re paid for successful results, which makes winning important.

They can be put under pressure to perform when injured.

They must specialise in a sport in order to compete, which requires serious training, dedication and self-sacrifice.

They are effectively entertainers who become household names.

They are controlled by the sponsor, become public commodities and suffer from a lack of privacy.

Question 93

What are the effects of commercialisation on sport?

Answer 93

Rules and scoring systems have been changed or introduced to speed up the action and prevent spectator boredom.

Breaks are provided in play so that sponsors can advertise their products and services.

Competition formats have changed.

Sports played by women receive less coverage, which can negatively affect participation and funding - there are fewer female role models and there is less money to reinvest into sport at grassroots and professional levels.

The increased use of technology through the media has led to a more personal experience for the viewer.

Question 94

What are the reasons why companies invest large amounts of money into sport e.g. via sport sponsorship?

Answer 94

• Increased sales/commercial benefits/increased profit/increased publicity.
• Increases brand awareness/adds value to a brand.
• Creates an association with excellence at the highest levels of sport.
• Creates an association with the healthy image of sport.
• Gives an opportunity to link to corporate hospitality.
• Sponsorship can decrease the amount of tax paid by a company; tax relief.
• Improve company morale/employees feel linked to the success of sport.

Question 95

What are the types of media involved in covering sport?

Answer 95

Newspapers, radio, TV, the internet and social media.

Question 96

What is globalisation in sport seen via?

Answer 96

• The sponsorship of events.
• The way players are recruited to play for teams in countries rather than their own.
• The spreading of different sports to ‘new nations’.
• Increasing pressure on athletes to perform to their best; this may lead some to use illegal substances to maintain high performance levels and the accompanying rewards that success brings in a number of high-profile sports.

Question 97

What is globalisation?

Answer 97

The process whereby nations are increasingly being linked together and people are becoming more interdependent via improvements in communication and travel.

Question 98

How has TV and broadcasting helped football in the 20th/21st century?

Answer 98

More worldwide coverage so sport can be watched anywhere in the world.

Increased money involved in the media rights to events.

Kit sponsorship deals increased.

Clubs and players have an increased annual income.

Question 99

Define social media:

Answer 99

Online apps and websites which allow users to interact by sharing content and taking part in social networking.

Question 100

What are some impacts of social media on sport?

Answer 100

News travels quickly.

May invade privacy of sports professionals.

Quick updates on sports/games.