2.2 - Principles and theories of learning and performance Flashcards
What is learning defined as?
A permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice.
How many stages of learning are there?
3
What are the stages of learning?
The cognitive stage
The associative stage
The autonomous stage
What happens in the cognitive stage of learning?
The performer has to think carefully about their actions and try to understand how to copy the demonstrations and instructions.
Movements are slow and uncoordinated.
Motor programmes not yet developed.
Trial and error used.
What type of feedback may be used in the cognitive stage?
Extrinsic
Define cognitive stage of learning
The first stage of learning used by a novice. Understanding and sub-routines are explored by trial and error.
What is performance?
A temporary occurence that can change from time to time because of many external and internal influences.
Define associative stage of learning
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother.
Define autonomous stage of learning
The final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific.
Which is the longest stage of learning?
The associative stage
What happens in the autonomous stage of learning?
Actions become fluent, efficient and automatically undertaken.
Focus of fine details.
Motor programme fully developed.
What is feedback?
Information to aid error correction.
What are the 6 types of feedback?
positive negative extrinsic intrinsic knowledge of performance knowledge of results
What is positive feedback?
Encouragement - information about what was good.
What is negative feedback?
Error correction - Information about what was wrong.
What is extrinsic feedback?
Feedback from an outside source.
What is intrinsic feedback?
Feedback from within e.g. kinaesthetic feedback about how the skill felt to the muscles used.
What is knowledge of results?
Concerns the outcome - feedback about whether or not the skill was successful.
What is knowledge of performance?
Feedback about the technique.
What type of feedback is used in the cognitive stage?
Positive extrinsic
What type of feedback is used in the autonomous stage?
Intrinsic negative
What type of feedback is used in the associative stage?
Extrinsic intrinsic positive and negative
Define plateau
A period of no improvement in performance.
What is a learning plateau?
A period during performance when there are no signs of improvement.
What can the lack of improvement/a learning plateau be illustrated by?
A learning curve.
What is a learning curve?
A visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is performed repeatedly over a period of time by a novice.
Typically, how many stages can a learning curve be divided into?
4
Explain the 4 stages to a learning curve
1 - Rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor a performer is new to task and is in the cognitive stage of learning - trial and error being used.
2 - Rapid acceleration in rate of learning as performer has begun to master the task and gain some success, providing reinforcement and motivation.
3 - No improvement in the rate of learning and performance has reached a plateau - maintains same level.
4 - Period towards end of task when performance may deteriorate - maybe due to fatigue.
What is drive reduction?
An end-of-task period when performance may get worse.
Why may drive reduction occur?
Because the performer has gained success on the task and the initial drive to succeed has been lost. The challenge has been overcome and a new challenge or extension is needed to maintain motivation.
What are the causes of plateau?
Lack of motivation Boredom Coaching Limit of ability Targets set too low Fatigue
What are solutions to the plateau effect?
- Task extended/new challenge set.
- New coach to raise performance levels.
- Praise and positive reinforcement to provide motivation.
- Rest to avoid fatigue.
- More variety added to task to avoid boredom.
- Plateau concept explained to P so they don’t take full responsibility for their lack of improvement.
- Feedback to help improve performance and motivation.
What are the 4 methods of guidance?
visual
verbal
manual
mechanical
What is visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen - a demo.
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
Highlight specific weakness.
Shows what skill should look like.
Creates mental image.
Used with verbal guidance.
What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
Demo must be completely accurate otherwise it may be copied incorrectly.
If too much info is given the performer may get confused.
Must be steady and slow.
What is verbal guidance?
An explanation of the task.
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
Used with visual guidance.
Easy to use to explain task.
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
If too much info is given to performer, confusion may occur.
Performer may lose concentration unless the verbal info is brief, relevant and meaningful.
Language used must be understandable.
Ensure correct type of feedback is given.
What is manual guidance?
Physical support.
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
Eliminates danger.
Builds confidence.
Reduces fear and anxiety.
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
Detrimental effect on performance if it is over-used.
Too much reliance may interfere with feel of task.
If P depends on support too much they may lose confidence.
Close proximity may be off-putting.
What is mechanical guidance?
Use of an artificial aid.
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
Builds confidence.
Eliminates danger.
Gives early feel for whole skill - promotes learning.
Can be used with disabled athletes or those recovering from injury.
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
May interfere with feel of task.
Loss of confidence is performer has to depend on it too much.
Motivation lost if performer feels they aren’t completing the task independently.
What are the 4 theories of learning?
Operant conditioning
Social learning theory (observational learning)
Social development theory
Insight learning (theory)
What is operant conditioning?
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated.
What is the behaviourist theory?
This attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli.
Who came up with the operant conditioning theory and how?
Skinner (1948) - He observed rats in a cage called the ‘Skinner box’. The cage was fitted with a mechanism that delivered food to the rats every time it was touched. At first, the rats hit the mechanism by accident but quickly learned to hit the mechanism to gain their reward.
What 3 key features is operant conditioning characterised by?
It is based on trial-and-error learning.
The coach might manipulate the environment when using operant conditioning.
It shapes behaviour by using reinforcement.
What principle does operant conditioning work on?
That reinforced actions are strengthened and that incorrect actions can be weakened.
Based on the idea that success acts as a stratisfier to strengthen correct actions.
According to operant conditioning, what is likely to happen if the successful responses are rewarded?
Then they are likely to be repeated.
According to operant conditioning, what is likely to happen if unsuccessful responses are ignored or given an annoyer, such as criticism?
Then they may be avoided.
How does operant conditioning work?
By strengthening the link between the stimulus and the response, known as the stimulus-response (S-R) bond.
What are the ways that coaches could link the stimulus to the response using the principle of operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement.
Punishment.
What is a satisfier?
An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated.
What is an annoyer?
An actions that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses.
What is positive reinforcement?
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response given to increase the likelihood of a correct response occurring again in the future.
What is negative reinforcement?
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response. For example taking away negative criticism if the skill is performed correctly.
What is punishment?
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring.
When using operant conditioning what method of presenting practice might a coach use?
Whole or whole-part-whole to manipulate the environment.
What type of practice can also be used when using operant conditioning?
Mental practice to go over the correct aspects pf the task in the mind to help shape behaviour.
Who came up with the theory of observational learning?
Bandura (1977).
What types of behaviour does observational learning suggest can be learned by watching and copying other people?
Both acceptable and unacceptable.
When did Bandura suggest that a performer is more likely to copy a model demonstration?
If the coach uses four processes:
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor production
- Motivation
What 4 processes does a coach need to use if he wants to make a performer more likely to copy a model demonstration?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor production
- Motivation
How do you gain attention in observational learning?
By making the demonstration attractive to the performer.
Explain the process of attention in observational learning:
Making sure the performer takes notes of the relevant cues. The more attractive the demo is to the player, the more likely it is to be copied.
Grab the attention of the learner by selling your demo. Point out its function or the reason why you are asking them to learn it.
Make the model stand out by making it loud, bright or attractive and therefore more memorable to the learner.
The demo should be accurate and always correct.
What is retention?
Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it.
Explain the process of retention in observational learning:
Make sure the learner is able to recall the demo in the memory by breaking any information given into chunks and repeating it.
Make sure the demo is accurate and clear. The use of a role model or an expert player in the group may ensure an accurate demo is given.
The learner should attempt the skill as soon as it has been seen, so that the demo is fresh in the mind and so they can still remember how to do it.
What is motor production?
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task.
Explain the process of motor production in observational learning:
Make sure the player is capable of physically and mentally copying the demo - give a task that is set at the same level of ability as the performer and making sure that the task can be understood.
In the early stages of practice, success should be ensured by setting easy tasks and then making progress as the tasks become more complex.
The player should be given time to practice and learn well before moving on to the next part of the task.
What is motivation in observational learning?
Having the drive to do a task.
Explain the process of motivation in observational learning:
Motivate the learner by giving praise and rewards or offering feedback and positive reinforcement.
What is Bandura’s model of observational learning?
(Model) Attention –> Retention –> Motor production –> Motivation (Copying)
In observational learning, model demonstrations are more likely to be copied if:
- They are close to appropriate social norms (they are performed by a player of similar ability).
- They are reinforced.
- They are powerful, visually and physically.
- They are consistent.
- They are relevant.
Who came up with the social development theory of learning?
Vygotsky (1978)
What is social development?
Learning by association with others.
In social development theory, who are skills learned from?
More knowledgeable others - coaches, teachers, etc.
What is inter-psychological learning?
Learning from others externally - using the MKO to get advice, feedback and technical knowledge.
What can a performer do once inter-psychological learning has happened?
They absorb the advice then learning can take place within the learner who will use cognitive aspects of skill acquisition to internally analyse, think about and construct actions based on what they have learned externally (intra-psychological learning).
Which happens first, intra-psychological learning or inter-psychological learning?
Inter-psychological learning.
What is intra-psychological learning?
Learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge.
What is constructivism?
Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance.
What will the learner do during the process of intra-psychological learning?
Assess what level of performance they are currently working at and therefore what they need to do to learn more and move to the next level.
What is zone of proximal development?
The next stage of learning based on the performer’s needs, expectations and current level of performance.
What are the 3 stages of proximal development?
- What can I do alone?
- What can I do with help?
- What can I not do yet?
WHat theory uses zone of proximal development?
Social development theory - Vygotsky.
What is insight learning?
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.
Who suggested insight learning theory?
A group of German psychologists called the ‘Gestalts’.
What is insight theory also known as and why?
Gestaltist theories as Gestalts is a term that means concentrating on the whole rather than the parts.
What does insight theory suggest?
The performer will use existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic sporting situations because they might have an idea from their general sporting knowledge which they can put into practice. When they are presented with a problem, sporting knowledge is used to work out a solution and that idea might be tried. If the solution works, then it will be used again in similar situations in the future.
What are the features of insight theory?
- It concentrates on the whole task so is good for use in realistic situations that are closely linked to the event/game.
- It may provide a sense of self-satisfaction and give intrinsic motivation to the performer as the solution/tactic has been worked out by the athlete.
- It isn’t trial and error.
- It encourages the performer to think for themselves and develops the cognitive process.
- May work better than simply being told to do something as it generates more understanding of the actions needed to perform the skill in different situations.
- May generate a specific role for the performer.
