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A&P2 > 2Exam > Flashcards

2Exam Flashcards

1
Q

The endocrine has a major influence on maintaining homeostatsis by modifying metabolic activity through:

A
  1. reproduction
  2. growth and dev.
  3. electrolyte, water, nutrient balance
  4. regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
  5. mobilization of body defenses
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2
Q

endocrine organs

A
  1. thyroid gland
  2. parathyroid gland
  3. thymus gland
  4. pancreas
  5. ovaries
  6. testes
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3
Q

define hormone:

A

carried by bloodstream*
chemical compound secreated by endocrine glands through blood, broadcast to diverse cells and tissues

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4
Q

gland classification

A
  1. endocrine gland: release hormones into blood
  2. exocrine gland: releases compounds (not hormones) into ducts.
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5
Q

biogenic hormone

A

water soluble (except thyroid)
derived from amino acid that is modified
made in advance
ex. norepinephrine

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6
Q

Protein Hormone

A

water soluble, consists of amino acid chains, made in advance
ex. parathyroid hormone

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7
Q

three subgroups of protein hormone

A
  1. polypeptides
  2. olgiopeptides
  3. glycoproteins
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8
Q

steriod hormone

A

lipid soluble
formed from cholesterol
produced by gonads and adrenal cortex,
synthesized on demand
ex. cortisol

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9
Q

agonist

A

a chemical that binds a receptor and initiates a biological response

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10
Q

antagonist

A

a chemical that binds a receptor and inhibits a biological response

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11
Q

affinity

A

how tightly a ligand (hormone) binds to a protein (receptor)

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12
Q

efficacy

A

the relative ability of a drug-receptor complex to produce a functional response

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13
Q

Half life

A

the time it takes for a chemical to be removed or deactivated by the body

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14
Q

hormone receptors are either bound to ____ or ____

A
  1. plasma membrane bound receptors
  2. intracellular receptors
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15
Q

plasma membrane receptors

A

g protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
receptors:
tyrosine kinases
cytokine

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16
Q

intracellular receptors

A

steroid like receptors

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17
Q

g-protein coupled receptor (GPCR’s)

A

bound to plasma membrane and allow for signal amplification
signal amplification: allow a small signal to have a large effect

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18
Q

Cyclic AMP (cAMP):

A

the most common G-protein- mediated signaling cascade-
Steps: hormone (1st messenger) binds to receptor, receptor activates G protein, g protein activates adenylate cyclase, adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (2nd messenger), cAMP activates protein kinases.

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19
Q

stimulation of a single receptor can lead to formation of millions of response molecules

A

amplification in G-protein/ cyclic AMP signaling

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20
Q

g-proteins can activate different signaling mechanisms, activating or inhibiting cellular activity. steps:

A
  1. signal molecule binds to G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) which activates G protein
  2. g protein turns to adenylyl cyclase (amplifier enzyme)
  3. adenlyly cyclae converts ATP to cyclic AMP
  4. cAMP activates protein kinase A
  5. protein kinase A phosphorylates other proteins, leading ultimately to a cellular response.

many types of g-proteins can bind to receptors and initiate different signaling cascades
different signaling cascades utilize different second messengers
this is BIOGENIC AMINES and PEPTIDE HORMONES

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21
Q

hydrophobic hormone

A

act via intracellular receptors and direct gene activation
acts a transcription factor.
1. steps diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor
2. receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus
3. the receptor hormone complex binds a specific DNA region
4. binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
5. mRNA directs protein synthesis

(structural and exported proteins)

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22
Q

three types of stimuli can cause hormone secretion

A
  1. humoral
  2. neural
  3. hormonal
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23
Q

Humoral Stimulus

A

hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients
stimulus: low concentration of CA2+ in capillary bed
response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases blood CA2+

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24
Q

neural stimulus

A

hormone released by neural imput
stimulus: action potentia pregang. symp- adrenal med.
response: adrenal medulla cells secret epinephrine and norepinephrine

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25
Q

hormonal stimulus

A

hormone release caused by another hormone (tropic hormone)
stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
response: anterior pituitary secrets hormones- other endocrine organs release more hormones.

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26
Q

paraventricular nucleus (PVN)

A

one of most important for autonomic control

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27
Q

supraoptic nucleus

A

the peptide hormone vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin

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28
Q

infundibulum

A

pituitary stalk: connects hypothalamus and pituitary gland

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29
Q

anterior pituitary cells

A

endocrine gland cells
Adenohypophysis

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30
Q

posterior pituitary cells

A

mostly axons/terminals
neurohypophysis

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31
Q

how the hypathamus controls release of hormones from posterior pituitary gland

A

neuroendocrine cells:
1. hyp. neurons sythesize oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. oxytocin and ADH are transported down the axons of the hypthalamic-hypophyseal tract of posterior pituitary gland
3. oxytocin and ADH are stored in axon terminals in the posterior pituitary
4.** when associated hypothalamic neurons fire action potentials arriving at the axon terminals cause oxytocin or ADH to be released into the blood.**

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32
Q

how the hyp. controls hormone realease from anterior pituitary gland:

A

hypthalamic-hypophyseal portal system
1. hyp neurons secrete releasing and inhibit hormones into capillary bed
2. hormones travel through portal veins in the infundibulum
3. hyp. hormones exit that anterior pituitary capillary bed to bind into receptors on anterior pituitary cells
5. hyp hormones stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary cells.

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33
Q

Hormones released by hypathalmus

A
  1. hypothalamus
    releasing hormones TRH, PRH, gnRH, CRH, GHRH
    inhibiting hormone: PIH, GIH
  2. posterior pitu: vasopressin, oxytocin
    - anterior pituitary -
  3. TSH Thyroid stimulating hormone
  4. PRL Prolactin: mammary gland
  5. FSH & LH follicle stimulating hormone & leutinizingL gonazed and testes to spark gamete growth
  6. GH growth hormone: muscle tissue
    5.ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone: adrenal gland (cortisol release)
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34
Q

target gland

A

hormone production activated by pitu.
hormones from target gland regulate target tissue and provide feedback to pitu &/or hypo.

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35
Q

chain of command

A

hypo (master CNS/setpoint) - pitu. - (master gland) - target gland - target cell

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36
Q

ultrashort feedback loop

A

hypothalamus- hypathalamus
ex. somatostatin release (stop GH)

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37
Q

short feedback loop

A
  1. pitu gland- hypo.
  2. target gland- pitu.
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38
Q

long feedback loop

A

target gland - hypo.

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39
Q

negative feedback loop

A

inhibits hypo and pitu - decreasing further release.

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40
Q

other feedback loops not involving hypo.

A

calcium metabolism
glucose metabolism

41
Q

Compare and contrast hormones and neurotransmitters:

A

Both: signaling molecules that can be released by specific cells to influence the behavior of other cells.
Major difference: how they are released.
Hormones: released from endocrine glands directly into the systemic circulation
Neurotransmitters: only released by neurons at a synapse.
Different signaling influences how they affect target cells
Hormones: can effect any cell in the body that has a receptor to recognize that hormone
Global influence over cellular behavior
Neurotransmitters: can only bind and effect receptors that are located on the postsynaptic cell- limiting their effect to one cell.
Both needed for homeostasis.

42
Q

What are the 3 major classes of hormones and what are their defining features?

A

Biogenic amines: water-soluble (cannot pass plasma membrane), amino acid derivatives, made in advance by cells that secrete them.
Ex. norepinephrine and thryoxin
Protein hormones: water-soluble, composed of amino acid chains, made in advance by cells that secrete them.
Size varies depending on length of chain.
Ex. parathyroid, insulin, glucagon
Steriod hormones:lipid soluble (can cross plasma membrane) cholesterol derivatives that are synthsized on demand
only adrenal cortex (cortisol, aldosterone) and gonads produce steriod hormone.

43
Q

When a hormone is released how does it know what cells to interact with?

A

Hormones: released in blood supply and carried all over the body (endocrine fashion).
Hormones will only affect cells that express receptors for that hormone.

44
Q
  1. Describe how second messengers life cAMP are able to amplify the cellular response to stimulation by a hormone
A

Water soluble hormones bind to the cell surface receptors, many coupled to G-proteins on the cytoplasmic side of membrane.
Activations of intermediary proteins can activate a cellular cascade: forming second messengers: activates or inhibits cellular activity.
One hormone activates its receptor, which activates a g protein.
G protein activates multiple adenylate cyclase enzymes which forms second messengers called AMP.
Can lead to the formation of a thousand cAMP messengers- alter activity of multiple enzymes in the cell- amplification at every stage of the process.

45
Q

What are 3 types of stimuli for hormone secretion. Give examples of hormone that uses each stimulation

A

Three types of stimuli for hormonal secretion:
Humoral stimuli
Neuronal stimuli
Hormonal stimuli

Examples

Humoral stimuli: hormone release caused by a detected change in blood levels of ions or nutrients.
parathyroid hormone secretion in response to low calcium
Insulin release in response to high blood glucose levels
Aldosterone release in response to changing potassium levels

Neuronal stimuli: hormone is released in response to neuronal input.
Release of norepinephrine and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla during times of stress.

Hormonal stimulus: hormone release is triggered by the release of another hormone.
How many endocrine organs release their hormones
Trophic (releasing or inhibiting) hormones from hypothalamus which regulate secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.

46
Q

Compare and contrast the long, short, and ultrashort feedback loops of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland?

A

Hypothalamus- pituitary axis (HPA axis) feedback loops are different from other loops: signal regulating the loop is the concentration of secreted hormone, not its effect on the target cells.
Negative feedback loops.
Long feedback: most common. Concentration or hormone release from the target tissue feeds back to they hypothalamus resulting in the decrease of hypothalic hormone released.
ex. Increased levels of t4- decreases release of thryrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypo.

Short feedback loop: concentration of pituitary gland hormone feeds back to the hypothalamus, decreasing the release of hypothalamic hormone.
ex. Release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary inhibits the release of coricotrphin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypathalmus

Ultra short feedback look: The concentration of the hypthalamic hormone inhibits its won further release in autocrine fashion:
ex. The release of growth hormone GHRH releasing it own release into the hypothalamus

47
Q

. Describe the mechanism of hormonal release in the posterior and anterior pituitary gland.

A

The posterior pituitary gland neurophypophsis : tissue neuronal in origin.
Uses neuronal mechanisms
2 hypothalamic nuclei:
Paraventricular
Supraoptic nuclei
Send axons out of they hypothalamus and through the indundibulum. These neurons terminate in the posterior pituitary at a capillary bed. When paravtricular or spuroptic neurons fire an action potential, hormones that reside in synaptic vesicles in the axonal terminals are released into the capillary and out into systemic circulation

48
Q

Which of the following is not an endocrine organ?
a. Anterior pituitary gland
b. Thyroid gland
c. Pancreas
d. Posterior pituitary gland

A

d. posterior pitu. gland

49
Q

A hormone that bound to a G-protein coupled receptor and initiated a biological response would be classified an
a. Antagonist
b. Synergist
c. Agonist
d. Inverse agonist

A

c. agonist

50
Q

The release of ACTH (adernocorticotropic hormone) from the anterior pituitary can inhibit the release of CRH (cortiotropic releasing hormone) from the hypathalamus. This is an example of what kind of feedback loop?
a. Positive feedback loop
b. Long feedback loop
c. Short feedback loop
d. Ultrashort feedback loop

A

c. short feedback loop

51
Q

immediately after consuming a very salty meal you might expect to see an increase in what pitu. hormone?
a. oxytocin
b. antidiuretic hormone
c. thyroid releasing hormone
d. ACTH

A

b. Antidiuretic hormone

52
Q

oxytocin stimulates activity in which cell type?
a. skeletal muscle cells
b. hepatocytes
c. smooth muscle cells
d. lactotrophs

A

c. smooth muscle cells

53
Q

Which of the anterior pituitary cell hormone pair is correct?
a. gonadotroph: GnRH
b. Gonadotroph: LH/FSH
c. Somatotroph: Somatostatin
d. somatotroph: GRHR

A

b. gonadotroph: LH/FSH

54
Q

what are the major triggers for ADH (antidiuretic)

A

3 major triggers:
1. low blood pressure
2. low blood volume
2. dehydration (high blood osmolarity)

55
Q

main effect of ADH

A

within kidney collecting ducts
increase blood volume
increasing concentration of the urine

56
Q

what are the main physiological effects of oxytocin?

A

activation of smooth muscle cells in mammory glands and uterus
(G-protein coupled)

57
Q

regulation of growth hormone in the body

A

regulated by 2 hypo hormones:
1. GHRH : growth hormone releasing
hormone
2. GHIH: growth hormone inhibiting hormone

58
Q

growth hormone is regulated by ___ negative feedback loops?

A

3 negative feedback loops:
1. long feedback loop: inibits GH secretion when the blood levels of insulin are increased.
2. short feedback: inhibits GH secretion when circulating levels of GH feedback to they hypothalamaus and increase release of GHIH
3. ultrashort: GH secretion when GHRH inhibits its own release

59
Q

what are & are responsible for the indirect effects of growth hormone?

A

result of IGF firing (Insulin-like growth factors)
w/o gf you would not see igf. but effects of igf different from gh.
effects:
increased organ size and function
overall somatic cell growth
increased linear bone growth
increased lean muscle mass

60
Q

what are the direct effects of growth hormone?

A

those mediated by growth hormone directly binding to target cell.
effects:
lipolysis
decreased glucose uptake
increased guluconeogenesis
increased IGF production
amino acide uptake
increased protein synthesisf

61
Q

gigantism vs. acromegaly

A

both : from hypersecretion of growth hormone
difference: when they occur in development

gigantism: before epiphyseal plate close
acromegaly: after plates close (face, hands, feet)

62
Q

major effects of prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone and LHS is males and females

A

prolactin: females: milk production
FSH is a gonadotrophin. females: ovarain follicle maturation. males: spermatogenesis. both develop gamete.
LH: gonadotrophin. females: promote maturation, triggers ovulation, and release of est. and progest. males: stimulate testosterone production

63
Q

The hypo. acts as a master regulator defining many of the set points for homeostasis. where does it send / receive signals from?

A

receives from:
1. frontal lobe
2. limbic system
3. circulating hormones and signals
4. neural signals from sensory pathways

sends to:
1. pitu. gland (endocrine output)
2. brainstem and spinal cord centers
a. neural: automatic
b. neural: somatic

64
Q

most organs are regulated by

A

the autonomic nervous system

65
Q

autonomic pathways are part of the

A

motor system

66
Q

how do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS work together

A
  1. many organs receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation: one turns up and one turns down : opposing functions.
  2. they work together to regu. organ function with the needs of the body: balance is what determines function
  3. together they maintain homeostasis.
67
Q

preganglionic neuron

A

cell body in the CNS
it’s axon reaches from CNS to autonomic ganglion
connects to postganglionic neuron

68
Q

postganglionic neuron

A

cell body in an autonomic ganglion
axon reaches through the body to a target organ
synapses on: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells in the target organ

69
Q

dual innervation:

A

most organs receive sympathetic and parasympathetic control.
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or gland cell in target organ

70
Q

cells have different receptors for sympathetic and parasympathetic

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cell in target organ.

71
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

anatomically : craniosacral system
functionally: rest and digest system
(stores energy reserves, slows heart rate, housekeeping: empty bowel and bladder,
protection narrowing pupil and airways

72
Q

neurochemistry of parasympathetic system:

A

an acetylcholine-based system (ACTH)

73
Q

acetylcholine: neurotransmitter.
which neurons release?

A

pre and post ganglionic neurons of the parasymp.

74
Q

cholinergic receptor

A

binds to a receptor for acetylcholine

75
Q

types of acetylcholine receptors:

A
  1. nicotinic receptos: binds to nicotine
  2. muscarinic receptor
76
Q

sympathetic nervous system:

A

anatomy: throacolumbar
functionally: fight or flight
(release of energy reserves
speeding heart rate
increasing strength of contraction
increase blood pressure
increase air flow to lungs
bronchodiliation
dilation of pupil
regulation of blood flow

77
Q

Neurochemistry of the sympathetic system.

A

Acetylcholine and norepinephrine
1. pregang. neuron in symp. system releases acetylcholine
2. Ach binds to nictonic receptor
3. postgang releases norepinephrine
4. binds to adrenergic receptor
5. reaches target tissue

78
Q

adrenegic receptors bind

A

both epinephrine and norepinephrene but have afffinities for the 2 (preferences)

79
Q

fight of flight response from epinepherine:

A

epinepherine : hormone travels in blood, activates all sympathetic targets at once. adrenergic hormones are stimulated from this.

80
Q

subtypes of adrenergic receptors:

A
  1. alpha 1: contraction of smooth muscle
  2. alpha 2: found on varicosities of sympathetic postganglionic neurons // negative feedback to inhibit further norepineph. release
  3. beta 1: found on cardiac muscle cells: S/A and AV nodes: contractile cells
  4. beta 2: usually causes relaxation of smooth muscle
81
Q

sympathetic nervous system pathway

A
  1. Ach or nicotine stimulate nictonic type acetylcholine receptors at this synapse
  2. epinephrine / norepinephrine stimulate alpha or beta type adrenergic receptors on the target cell membrane.
82
Q

parasympathetic nervous system pathway:

A
  1. Ach / nicotine stimulate nictonic acetycholine receptors
  2. bind to target cell with same receptors
83
Q

if a cell receives both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation (dual innervation)
what receptor must it have

A

must have receptors for both adrenergic and chollinergic receptors.

84
Q

Agonist drug

A

binds to a receptor and creates the same response in the cell as the binding transmitter

85
Q

antagonist drug (blocker)

A

binds to a receptor but does not create a response in the cell, blocks the action of transmitter by occupying the binding site.

86
Q

drugs that affect ach pathways

A
  1. nicotine
  2. muscarine
  3. acetycholinesterase inhibitors
87
Q

nicotine: agonist to nic. type. ach recep

A

stimulates both sympathetic and parasymp. pathways
activates skeletal muscles as well

88
Q

muscarine: agonist at muscarinic type ach. recep

A

found in certain mushrooms
stimulates all muscarinic receptros at target ogans (all parasymp pathways plus sweat glands)
poisoning can be life threatening
effects:
exess. salivation
lacrimation
urination
sweating
intestinal
constricted pupil
slow heart rate
bronchoconstriction

89
Q

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

A

any drug that inactivates acetylcholinesterase.
Ach stays active at the synapse longer
prolongs stimulation at both nictonic and muscarinic receptors
prolonged stimulation of skeletal muscle
clinical use: Alzheimer, parkinsons, neuromuscular
weaponized: pesticide, nerve gasses

90
Q

drugs that affect adrenergic pathways

A
  1. epinephrine
  2. alpha and agonist and antagonists
  3. beta agonists and antagonists
91
Q

epinephrine family clinical drug use

A
  1. epineph
  2. psudoeph.
  3. ephedrine
    stimulate adrenegic receptors
    effects: increased heart rate, increase b.p., relaxed airways, dialated pupils, release of energy reserves.
92
Q

sympath. vaso.constric. a result of activating..

A

alpha 1 in blood vessels

93
Q

alpha 1 agonist:

A

increase vasoconstriction and increase b.p.:
treat hypotension

94
Q

alpha 1 antagonist:

A

smooth muscle in blood vessel wall
reduce vasoconstriction and reduce blood pressure
treat hypertension

95
Q

alpha 2 receptors:

A

blood vessel walls
autoreceptors
decrease NE release from terminals

96
Q

Alpha 2 agonists:

A

sympathetic terminal
decrease NE release at sympathetic terminals. decrease sympathetic activity.
used to decrease heart work and decrease blood pressure.

97
Q

beta 1 agonist

A

sympathetic nervous system normally causes increase in heart rate and contractility by activating beta 1 receptors at heart

98
Q

beta 1 antagonist

A

eart sa/av nodes and ventricle wall
beta 1 antogonist reduce heart rate and contractility to decrease heart work.

99
Q

beta 2 agonist

A

smooth muscle in bronchioles
sympathetic nervous system usually relaxes smooth muscle airway.
used to treat asthma and other resp. cond.

A&P2 (11 decks)

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