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BIOLOGY > 2c the immune system > Flashcards

2c the immune system Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an antigen

A

Molecules that can generate an immune response when detected by the body
Found on the surface of cells used by immune system to identify pathogens

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2
Q

What is a pathogen

A

Organism that causes disease or abnormal body cells or toxins

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3
Q

what is a phagocyte

A

a type of white blood cell which carries out phagocytosis

found in blood and in tissues and are the first cells to respond in immune response

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4
Q

1–how do phagocytes work

A

1- recognise foreign antigens on pathogen
2-cytoplasm of phagocyte engulfs pathogen
3-pathogen now contained in phagocytic vacuole in cytoplasm
4-lysosome fuses with phagocytic vacuole , lysozyme breaks down pathogen
5- phagocytes then present the pathogen is antigen is it sticks the antigens on its surface to activate other immune system cells

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5
Q

what’s a lysosome

A

organelle that contains enzyme called lysozyme

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6
Q

2–describe phagocytes activating t cells

A

T cells have receptor proteins on surface which bind to complimentary antigens presented to it by phagocytes this activates the T-cell

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7
Q

How do you helper T cells respond

A

Release chemical signals that activates and stimulates phagocytes and cytotoxic T cells which kill abnormal foreign cells
Also activate B cells which secrete antibodies

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8
Q

What are B cells and T cells

A

Types of white blood cells

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9
Q

Describe B cells

A

covered with antibodies - proteins that bind antigens form an antigen-antibody complex
each B cell has different shape antibody on its membrane so form to different antigens

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10
Q

3–Describe how T cells activate b cells which divide into plasma cells

A

1) When antibody on the surface of the cell meets complimentary shaped antigen and they bind
2) this with substances released from helper T-cell is activate B-cell process called clonal selection
3) activated B cell divides into plasma cells

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11
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies

A

Plasma cells are identical to be cells secrete loads of antibodies specific to the antigen

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12
Q

How many binding sites does an Antobody have and what does this mean

A

Two so it can bind two pathogen is at same time meaning pathogen is become clumped together called agglutination
Phagocytes then bind to antibodies and phagocytose many pathogens at once process leads to destruction of pathogen is carrying this antigen in the body

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13
Q

what’s a cellular response

A

T cells and other immune system cells that they interact with

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14
Q

what’s a humoral response

A

B cells clonal selection and the production of monoclonal antibodies form the humoral response

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15
Q

describe primary response

A

When antigen enters body for first time
Response is slow as not many B cells present that can make Antibody needed to bind to auntigen
Body will then produce enough of right Antibody to overcome infection
B cells and T cells produce memory cells memory cells stay in body for long time
Person is now immune

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16
Q

Describe the cells and T cells in primary immune response

A

Memory T cells remember specific antigen and will recognise it a second time round
Memory B-cell is record specific antibodies needed to buy to antigen

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17
Q

Describe secondary response

A

If same pathogen enters body again immune system produces quicker stronger immune response
Clonal selection happens faster memory B-cell is activated dividing into plasma cells which produce right antibodies for antigen
Memory T cells activated dividing into correct type of T-cell to kill cell carying antigen
Gets rid of pathogen before person shows any symptoms

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18
Q

Describe vaccine

A

Contain antigens causing your body to produce memory cells against pathogens without pathogen causing disease meaning immunity without any symptoms

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19
Q

Describe herd immunity

A

Vaccine protecting individuals this reduces occurrence of disease therefore those who are not vaccinated also less likely to catch disease

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20
Q

What does vaccines contain

A

Antigens free or attached to a dead attenuated pathogen

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21
Q

What is disadvantage of taking vaccine orally

A

Could be broken down by enzymes in gut

or molecules of vaccine too large to be absorbed into blood

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22
Q

What are booster vaccines

A

Given later on to make sure memory cells are produced

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23
Q

What is antigenic variation

A

When pathogens change the surface antigen is different antigens are formed due to the changes in the genes of a pathogen

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24
Q

What are the strainss of influenza

A

Immunologically distinct

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25
Q

Why is the influenza vaccine changed every year

A

The strains are immunologically distinct meaning it has different antigens

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26
Q

What is active immunity

A

When your immune system makes its own antibodies after being stimulated by antigen

27
Q

Describe natural active immunity

A

When you become immune after catching disease

28
Q

Describe artificial active immunity

A

When you become immune after been given a vaccination containing harmless dose of antigen

29
Q

What is passive immunity

A

Type of immunity you get from being given antibodies made by different organism

30
Q

Describe natural passive immunity

A

When a baby becomes immune due to antibodies it receives from its mother placenta and breast milk

31
Q

Describe artificial passive immunity

A

When you become immune after being injected with antibodies from someone else e.g. from blood donations

32
Q

Difference in active and passive immunity

A
  • Active immunity requires exposure to antigen( p doesn’t)
  • takes awhile for protection to develop (p is immediate)
  • memory cells are produced (not produced in p)
  • protection is long-term as antibody is produced after activation of memory cells (p is short term antibodies broken down)
33
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies

A

Antibodies produced from a single group of genetically identical be cells or plasma cells
meaning identical in structure

34
Q

How are antibodies very specific

A

The binding sites have a unique tertiary structure that only one particular antigen can fit to
complimentary shape

35
Q

How are monoclonal antibody is different

A

You can make them bind to anything you want

36
Q

How are monoclonal antibody is useful for targeting cancer cells

A

Cancer cells have antigen is called tumour markers monoclonal antibody are made that bind to tumour markers
you can attach anti-cancer drugs to antibodies
antibodies come into contact with cancer cells they bind to tumour markers
meaning the drug will only accumulate in the body where they are cancer cells
therefore side-effects are low

37
Q

What is the name of the hormone that pregnancy test detect

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin

hcg

38
Q

How does a pregnancy test work

A

1-Application area contains antibodies for HCG bound to coloured blue bead
2-urine is applied any HCG binds to Antibody on beads forming antigen Antibody complex
3-urine moves up stick to test strip carrying beads with it
4-test stripped contains antibodies to Hache CG that are immobilised
5-if HCG present test strip turns blue as immobilised antibodies bind to any HCG concentrating the HCG Antibody complex with the blue beads attached
6-if no HCG present beads pass through test without binding

39
Q

What is the ELISA test

A

Medical diagnostic test using antibodies

Allows you to see if patient has any antibodies to a certain antigen or any antigen to a certain antibody

40
Q

what does ELISA stand for

A

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

41
Q

What is a direct ELISA test

A

Uses a single antibody that is complimentary to antigen your testing for

42
Q

What is an indirect ELISA test

A

Uses two different antibodies

43
Q

Method of an indirect ELISA test for HIV

A

…

44
Q

Briefly describe the HIV

A

A virus that affects immune system eventually leading to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIDS

45
Q

Describe AIDS

A

Condition were immune system deteriorates and fails someone with AIDS is more vulnerable to other infections like pneumonia

46
Q

How does HiV work

A

hIV infects and kills helper T cells which act as host cells for the virus
without helper T cells the immune system is unable to mount an affective response to infections as T cells activate phagocyte cytotoxic T cells and B cells

47
Q

When does someone with HIV develop AIDS

A

When the helper T cells numbers in the body reach a critically low level

48
Q

Describe HIVs core

A

The core contains genetic material RNA

and some proteins including the enzyme reverse transcriptase which is needed for virus replication

49
Q

Describe HiV core outer coating

A

Outer coating of protein called capsid

50
Q

What is the hiv extra outer layer around the capsid

A

Envelope made of membrane stolen from cell membrane of the previous Host cell

51
Q

What is sticking out from envelope on HIv cell

A

Loads of copies of an attachment protein that helps HIV attached to host helper T cells
called envelope proteins

52
Q

How does HIV virus replicate

A

HIV can only reproduce inside cells of the organism it’s infected
HIV replicates in helper T cells of the host
uses the equipment of the host cell to replicate

53
Q

How does HIV replicates detailed

A

1-the attachment protein attaches to receptor molecule on cell membrane of helper T-cell
2-the capsid is released into the cell where uncoats and releases the RNA into the cell cytoplasm
3-in the cell reverse transcriptase used to make a complimentary strand of DNA from the viral RNA template
4-double-stranded DNA is made and inserted into human DNA
5-host cell enzymes used to make viral proteins from viral DNA found within human DNA
6-viral proteins assembled into new viruses which bad from cell and go on to infect other cells

54
Q

What is the name of the periods where the person infected with HIV experiences no symptoms

A

Latency period which can last for years

55
Q

What are the initial symptoms of AIDS

A

Minor infections of mucus membranes inside of nose ears or genitals
re-occurring respiratory infections

56
Q

Describe mid stage of AIDS

A

As aids progresses number of the immune system cells decrease further
patients more susceptible to more serious infections like chronic diarrhoea severe bacterial infections and tuberculosis

57
Q

Describe the late stages of AIDS

A

Patient has very low number of immune system cells can develop range of infections such as
toxoplasmosis of the brain a parasite infection
candidiasis of the respiratory system fungal infection these will likely kill patients

58
Q

How does antibiotics kill bacteria

A

Interfering with their metabolic reactions target bacteria enzymes and ribosomes used in these reactions

59
Q

Why can antibiotics kill bacteria

A

As bacteria enzymes and ribosomes are different for human enzymes and ribosomes meaning antibiotics only target bacterial ones and don’t damage human cells

60
Q

Why can’t antibiotics kill viruses

A

Viruses don’t have their own enzymes and ribosomes they use Host cells
so antibiotics can’t inhibit them because they don’t target human processes

61
Q

What do most anti-viral drugs target

A

The few virus-specific enzymes for example in HIV reverse transcriptase is targeted
the drug that targets this is called reverse transcriptase inhibitors

62
Q

What are the best ways to combat HIV is

A

Anti-viral drugs can slow progression of HIV best way to control is reducing unprotected sex
HIv can be spread through infected bodily fluids e.g. blood from sharing needles and from HIV positive mother to fetus

63
Q

How can HIV positive mothers have HIV negative babies

A

HIV positive mothers can take anti-viral drugs during pregnancy and reduce chances of baby having HIV

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