2.2 - Principles and theories of learning and performance Flashcards
define learning
a permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice
define performance
a temporary occurence that can change from time to time because of many external and internal influences
what are the three stages of learning?
- cognitive stage
- associative stage
- autonomous stage
what is the cognitive stage of learning?
- pre-practice stage
- put together the mental model of the skill
- learner is still understanding what is needed in the skill
- learner needs to give performance full attention
- lots of errors made
- terminal feedback given
- feedback needs to be clear, simple and limited
what is the associative stage of learning?
- learner begins to make use of intrinsic / kinaesthetic feedback
- starts to compare performance to mental model
- pays attention to concurrent feedback
- starts to use more complex and detailed cues
- learner can perform the skill under a variety of situations
- element of competition can be introduced
- it is a period of consolidation of correct movement responses
what is the autonomous stage of learning?
- becomes habitual
- less conscious attention to the performance of the skill
- skill improvement continues but less rapid
- progress is due to fine details and self-evaluation, mental practice and self motivation
- high levels of smoothness, efficiency, accuracy and performed without stress
- performer can pay attention to more complex, tactical and situational skills
what are the 6 types of feedback?
Positive Negative Extrinsic Performance (KOP) Intrinsic Results (KOR)
(Perhaps Not Every Person Is Realistic)
what is feedback?
information to aid error correction
- can be received before, during or after a performance
what is positive feedback?
informs the performer what was good about the movement
- it is extrinsic
- helps them to remember how to perform the movement next time
- essential for motivation
what is negative feedback?
informs the performer what was wrong about the movement
- it is extrinsic
- it must include what they need to do next time (corrections)
what is extrinsic feedback?
comes from outside the performer
- e.g coach or manager
- can be verbal or a score card
- beginners heavily rely on this feedback
what is intrinsic feedback?
feedback from within the performer
- e.g kinaesthesis
what is kinaesthesis?
when elite performers develop the ability to interpret sensory information
- they can feel if they have performed well
what is knowledge of results feedback?
focuses on how successful you have been in achieving an outcome
- factual
- beginners need this as they may not realise if they have been successful or not
- better for cognitive learners
what is knowledge of performance feedback?
provides more detail about how well you performed
- can relate to your technique
- focusing on the quality of performance not the result
- better for associative and autonomous learners
what is the learning plateau?
a period during performance when there are no signs of improvement; the performer does not appear to be getting any better at doing the task
what are the four stages of learning?
stage 1:
- where the rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor
- in cognitive stage of learning –> figuring out sub-routines
stage 2:
- rapid acceleration in the rate of learning
- performer has begun to master the task
- providing success and motivation
stage 3:
- there is no improvement in the rate of learning
- performance has reached a plateau (maintaining the same level
stage 4:
- period towards the end of the task when performance may deteriorate
what are the causes of the learning plateau?
- lack of motivation (lack of incentives, extrinsic feedback –> lose drive and energy)
- boredom
- coaching (incorrect methods)
- limit of ability
- target set too low (doesn’t allow them to use full range of their skills
- fatigue
what are the solutions to the learning plateau?
- task could be extended –> new challenge
- could find a new coach –> raise performance levels
- coach could offer more praise and positive reinforcement –> provide motivation
- rest could be taken –> avoid fatigue
- more variety in the task –> avoid boredom
- concept of the learning plateau could be explained –> don’t take personal responsibility for their lack of improvement
- player could seek feedback –> improve performance and motivation
what is verbal guidance?
an explanation given by the coach that highlights points to help build the correct mental image
- ensures correct actions
- used by experienced athletes
what are the advantages and disadvantages of verbal guidance?
adv:
- can provide positive feedback for beginners
disadv:
- too much information –> confusion
- can place too much demand on memory
- performer may lose concentration
- beginner may not understand technical terms
what is visual guidance?
guidance that can be seen, a demonstration, to create a mental image for beginners
- should be within the capabilities of the performer –> maintains motivation
- reinforcement should be given –> encourage retention
what are the advantages and disadvantages of visual guidance?
adv:
- can highlight a specific weakness
- shows what the skill should look like as a result of practice
disadv:
- the demonstration must be completely accurate
- coach must ensure success
- too much information = confusion
- must be steady and slow
what is manual guidance?
physical support that can involve a type of forced response
- e.g coach holding arm of tennis player
what is mechanical guidance?
an artificial aid/ device used to help performance
- e.g trampoline harness
what are the advantages and disadvantages of manual and mechanical guidance?
adv:
- eliminates danger
- builds confidence
- fear/ anxiety is reduced
- complex skills can be broken down into stages with help of physical support
disadv:
- detrimental effect on performance if overused
- reliance on the physical support could interfere with the feel of the skill –> develop bad habits
- can lose confidence if they feel they can’t do it without it
- requires the coach to be close to the performer –> potentially off-putting
what are the 4 theories of learning?
- Operant conditioning (Skinner)
- Observational learning (Bandura)
- social development theory (Vygotsky)
- insight learning (Gestalt)
what is operant conditioning?
the use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated
- known as behaviourist theory
- based on skinner’s work with rats (skinner box)
what is the behaviourist theory?
attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli
what are the 3 key features that characterise operant conditioning?
- based on trial-and-error learning
- manipulates the environment
- shapes behaviour using reinforcement
what is the stimulus-response bond?
the bond between the stimulus and the response that is strengthened through operant conditioning
- by linking appropriate actions to a stimulus, actions can be learned
how can coaches strengthen the stimulus-response bond to help shape behaviour?
by using:
- positive reinforcement
- negative reinforcement
- punishment
what is positive reinforcement?
a pleasant stimulus after the correct response
- e.g coach offering praise
what is negative reinforcement?
taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response
- e.g coach taking away negative feedback when the technique improves
what is punishment?
an unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring
- e.g player receiving a red card in football
what is observational learning?
suggests that both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and copying other people
- social learning theory
- suggested by bandura
what are the 4 processes that bandura suggested would make a performer more likely to copy a model demonstration?
- attention
- retention
- motor production
- motivation
what is the first process (attention) in observational learning?
making the demonstration attractive to the performer
- makes it more likely to be copied
- it should be loud, clear, accurate and always correct
- e.g telling tennis player the reason you are demonstrating a sliced serve is to drag the opponent off court to open up the court for a winning shot
what is the second process (retention) in observational learning?
remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it
- make sure they are able to recall the demonstration by breaking any information given into ‘chunks’ and repeating it
- learner should attempt the skill directly after demonstration (fresh in the mind, can recall it)
what is the third process (motor production) in observational learning?
having the mental and physical ability to do the task
- e.g set the task on the same level as the ability of the performer
- early stages of practice, tasks should be easy
- then make it more complex
what is the fourth process (motivation) in observational learning?
having the drive to do the task
- motivate learner by giving praise and rewards
- or positive feedback and positive reinforcement
when are model demonstrations/ behaviours more likely to be copied?
- if they are performed by a player of similar ability
- if they are reinforced
- if they are powerful, visually and physically
- if they are consistent
- if they are relevant
what is the social development theory?
learning by association with others
- skills can be learned from influential others (known as ‘more knowledgeable other’, MKO)
- suggested by vygotsky
- the MKO demonstrates values and actions that can be adopted by the learner
what is inter-psychological learning?
learning from others externally
- the learner could use the MKO
what is intra-psychological learning?
learning from within after gaining external knowledge from others
- after this the learner will construct their learning (constructivism)
what is constructivism?
building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance
- during intra-psychological learning, they will assess what level of performance they are working at and what they need to do to learn more
- MKO may help as the skill gets more advanced
what is the zone of proximal development?
the next stage of learning based on the performer’s needs, expectations and current level of performance
what are the 3 stages of proximal development?
- what can I do alone?
- what can I do with help?
- what can I not do yet?
what is insight learning?
using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
- suggested by a group of german psychologists: gestalts
- e.g changing how you run a 3000 metre race to make it easier
what are the advantages of the insight theory?
- it concentrates on the whole task
- solution/ tactic is solved by the performer, gives a sense of self-satisfaction
- gives intrinsic motivation to the performer
- encourages the performer to think for themselves
- develops the cognitive process
generates more understanding of the actions required to perform the skill in different situations
what are the disadvantages of the insight theory?
- if you get stuck, you could decrease motivation and could frustrate the performer
- more time consuming for the performer to think for themselves
