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z - A Level Biology > 2.1.1: Cells and Microscopy > Flashcards

2.1.1: Cells and Microscopy Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the four ways in which a sample can be prepared (light microscope examination)

A
  • Dry mount
  • Wet mount
  • Squash slides
  • Smear slides
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2
Q

How light microscope works:

A

1) Light passes from bulb
2) Through condenser lens which focuses rays
3) Through specimen
4) Then focused through one of the 4 objective lenses to view specimen at different magnification
5) Light passes into eyepiece –> specimen can be viewed

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3
Q

Why must the cover slip by placed on a wet mount at an angle?

A

• To avoid trapping air bubbles

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4
Q

Why should the refractive index of the medium for a wet mount be close to that of glass?

A
  • To avoid excess refraction of light

* Thereby keep image clear

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5
Q

Why is staining necessary?

A
  • Increase the contrast between different components of cells
  • Thereby make them easier to identify
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6
Q

What is a simple stain?

A
  • A process that involves using one solution of a single dye.
  • Can make it possible to discern the shapes of different organisms like bacteria.
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7
Q

What is differential staining?

A
  • A process that involves using more than one chemical stain.
  • Can help distinguish between different microorganisms or provide contrast between different organelles in an organism.
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8
Q

What is resolution?

A

The ability to see individual objects as separate entities. Allows more detail to be seen.

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9
Q

Points closer than…

A

1/2 the wavelength of light cannot be seen as separate entities.

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10
Q

What is magnification?

A

The degree to which the size of the image is larger than the size of the object itself.

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11
Q

How does Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy work?

A

1) Laser excitation source emits rays of light of certain wavelength
2) Light passes through illumination pinhole
3) Light reflected by dichromatic mirror
4) Reflected light refracted through the objective lens
5) Light focused on single focal plane of the specimen (illumination point)
6) Light causes fluorescence from components stained with a fluorescent antibody tag
7) Light emitted back through objective lens, passed through dichromatic mirror
8) Light enters detector through confocal pinhole

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12
Q

Why does the fluorescent light emitted pass through the dichromatic mirror?

A

Because this light has a different wavelength to the light emitted by the laser excitation source.

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13
Q

What does the confocal pinhole do?

A

Prevents out of focus light from a different focal plane being detected.

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14
Q

What does confocal mean?

A

Both the light waves from the laser and radiated when the sample fluoresces have the same focal plane and both follow the same paths.

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15
Q

What is the beamsplitter?

A

The dichromatic mirror, which reflects light of the wavelength emitted by the laser but lets light of other wavelengths pass through.

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16
Q

How can a 3D image be produced from LSCM?

A
  • 2D image slices layered on top of each other.

* Reconstructed into 3D model by computer.

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17
Q

How can antibodies be used for fluorescence microscopy?

A
  • Antibodies specific to a particular molecule are dyed.

* They then attach to this feature in the cell.

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18
Q

DNA in eukaryotic cells is…

A
  • linear
  • contained in nucleus
  • wrapped around histomes
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19
Q

DNA in prokaryotic cells is:

A
  • circular
  • ”naked” = not wrapped around histomes
  • exists in nucleoid region or in plasmids
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20
Q

Organelles in prokaryotic cells are:

A

Not membrane bound

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21
Q

Organelles in eukaryotic cells are…

A

Membrane bound

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22
Q

Size of eukaryotic cell:

A

10-40 µm (micrometers)

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23
Q

Size of prokaryotic cells:

A

0.5-5 µm (micrometers)

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24
Q

Cell walls in a prokaryotic cell:

A
  • always present

* made of peptidoglycan

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25
Q

Cell walls in a eukaryotic cell:

A
  • sometimes present

* made of cellulose or chitin

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26
Q

Prokaryotic cells reproduce by:

A

Binary fission (asexual reproduction)

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27
Q

Eukaryotic cells reproduce by:

A

Sexual or asexual reproduction

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28
Q

Flagella in eukaryotic cells:

A

• larger and more flexible that prokaryotic cell flagella

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29
Q

Flagella in prokaryotic cells:

A
  • thinner and more rigid that flagella in eukaryotic cells

* rotate to move cell

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30
Q

Arrangement of microtubules in cilia:

A

9 + 2 arrangement

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31
Q

Functions of the cytoskeleton:

A
  • provides structural support
  • aids movement of cells
  • helps transport of substances
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32
Q

What are microtubules made of?

A

Protein

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33
Q

What are intermediate fibres (filaments) made of?

A

Protein

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34
Q

What are microfilaments made of?

A

Protein

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35
Q

Size of microtubules

A

~ 25 nm (diameter)

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36
Q

Size of intermediate fibres:

A

~ 10 nm (diameter)

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37
Q

Size of microfilaments

A

~ 7nm (diameter)

38
Q

Function of intermediate fibres

A

• provide structural support to the cell -> help resist mechanical stress and enable cell to retain shape

39
Q

Example of microtubules function:

A

In trachea, cilia waft mucus

40
Q

Example of intermediate fibres function

A

Anchors nucleus

41
Q

Example of microfilaments function

A

Pull membrane in during cell division

42
Q

Composition of cilia

A

Plasma membrane

Microtubules

43
Q

Prokaryotic flagella function

A
  • enable cell mobility

* as a sensory organelle detecting changes in an environment

44
Q

Function of cilia

A

Cause fluids/objects adjacent to the cell to move

45
Q

Bacterial flagella have a 9+2 arrangement?

A

No

Prokaryotic flagella lack a 9+2 arrangement

46
Q

Prokaryotic cells:

A

Have no nucleus, e.g. bacteria.

47
Q

Eukaryotic cells:

A

Have a nucleus, e.g. plant and animal cells.

48
Q

What is the ultrastructure of a cell?

A

Sections of the internal structure of the cell that can only be seen with an electron microscope.

49
Q

Free ribosomes - size in prokaryotic cell

A

70s

50
Q

Free ribosomes - size in eukaryotic cell

A

80s

51
Q

Production and secretion of proteins:

A

1) Gene, found on chromosomes, codes for the production of a protein
2) An mRNA copy of gene is produced
3) mRNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pore –> attaches to a ribosome –> to be secreted or turn into lysosome, attached to rER
4) Ribosome ‘reads’ the instructions in the mRNA and synthesises a protein which passes into the cisternae
5) Vesicle containing assembled proteins in rER buds off –> Golgi via transport function of cytoskeleton
6) Vesicles fuse with cis face of Golgi
7) Proteins in Golgi modified and packaged
8) Secretory vesicles bud off from trans side
9) Fuse with plasma membrane
10) Released by exocytosis

52
Q

Suggest two processes inside cells that rely on the cytoskeleton for movement:

A
  • cell division especially in cytokinesis stage

* transportation of vesicles

53
Q

Function of the Rough Endoplasmic reticulum:

A

• synthesis of proteins

54
Q

Both the rER and the smooth ER have

A

Cisternae

55
Q

Stage micrometer

A

Graduated measuring scale placed on the microscope stage.

56
Q

Formula for magnification

A

Magnification = Image size / Object size

57
Q

Magnification and resolution: light microscope

A

x 1,500

200nm

58
Q

Magnification and resolution: LSCM

A

x 1,500

160nm

59
Q

Magnification and resolution: TEM

A

x 2,000,000

0.1 nm

60
Q

Magnification and resolution: SEM

A

x 200,000

0.1 nm

61
Q

Appearance of images by Light microscope, LSCM, SEM, TEM

A
  • Light: Coloured, some components stained
  • LSCM: Fluorescent
  • TEM: Black and white, 2D - denser parts of specimen = darker
  • SEM: Black and white, 3D (can be coloured by computer)
62
Q

Nucleus (structure)

A
  • Contains nucleolus
  • Contains chromatin (DNA wrapped around histomes and proteins)
  • Surrounding by nuclear envelope
63
Q

Nucleus (function)

A
  • Houses cell’s genetic material

* Has instructions for making proteins

64
Q

Nucleolus (structure)

A

• Dense spherical structure inside nucleus

65
Q

Nucleolus (function)

A

• Makes RNA and ribosomes

66
Q

Nuclear envelope (structure)

A
  • Surrounds nucleus
  • 2 membranes with fluid between
  • Nuclear pores go through envelope
67
Q

Nuclear envelope (function)

A

• Pores allow passage of large molecules e.g. hormones and mRNA

68
Q

rER (structure)

A
  • Flattened membraneous sacs = cisternae
  • Continuous with outer nuclear membrane
  • Has ribosomes attached to surface
69
Q

sER (structure)

A
  • Flattened membraneous sacs = cisternae

* No ribosomes

70
Q

sER (function)

A
  • Synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates

* Involved in lipid adsorption from the gut

71
Q

Golgi apparatus (structure)

A
  • Stack of membrane bound flattened sacs

* Vesicles often seen around the edges

72
Q

Golgi apparatus (function)

A

• Packages and modifies (folding, adding sugar) proteins from rER

73
Q

Flagella (structure)

A
  • Extension from cell
  • Cylinder contains nine microtubules in circular arrangement
  • Long
  • Usually present alone or in pairs
74
Q

Flagella (function)

A

• Enables movement

75
Q

Mitochondria (structure)

A
  • 2-5 µm long
  • Spherical or sausage shaped
  • Double membrane
  • Highly folded inner membrane forms cristae
  • Fluid interior = matrix
  • Contain own DNA; can replicate themselves
76
Q

Mitochondria (function)

A

• Site of aerobic respiration and ATP production

77
Q

Lysosomes (structure)

A

• Small spherical sac surrounded by single membrane

78
Q

Lysosome (function)

A
  • Keeps hydrolytic enzymes separate from rest of cell

* Fuse with old organelles/foreign substances to digest them

79
Q

Chloroplasts (structure)

A

• Double membrane
• Flattened membraneous sacs = thylakoids
• Stack of thylakoids = granum
• Fluid inside = stroma
⟶ Found in plant cells and some protoctists

80
Q

Chloroplasts (function)

A

• Site of photosynthesis

81
Q

Plasma membrane (structure)

A

• Continuous outer membrane, phospholipid bilayer with intrinsic and extrinsic proteins

82
Q

Plasma membrane (function)

A
  • Selectively permeable

* Controls exchange between cell and environment

83
Q

Cilia (structure)

A
  • Hair-like extensions from cell surrounded by plasma membrane
  • Contain microtubules in 9 + 2 arrangement
84
Q

Cilia (function)

A
  • Move material (e.g. waft mucus)

* Act as antennae in cell signalling

85
Q

Vacuole (structure)

A

• Fluid-filled sac surrounded by tonoplast
⟶ Large and permanent in plant cells
⟶ Small and transient in animal cells

86
Q

Vacuole (function)

A

• Maintain cell turgor (plants)

87
Q

Free ribosome (structure)

A

• Each consists of 2 subunits (think translation)

88
Q

Free ribosomes (function)

A

• Site of protein synthesis (for proteins to remain in cell)

89
Q

Centrioles (structure)

A

• Microtubules (small tubes of protein fibres)

90
Q

Centrioles (function)

A

• Take part in cell division (produce spindle fibres)

91
Q

Cell wall (structure)

A
  • Cellulose in plants

* Chitin in fungi

92
Q

Cell wall (function)

A
  • Maintains cell shape

* Permeable - allows substances to pass in and out

z - A Level Biology (25 decks)

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