14. Skill Acquisition Flashcards
1
Q
What is skill acquisition?
A
Process of learning, developing & retaining new skills or improving existing ones through practise, experience & training
- Involves gradual progressich
- influenced by factors such as practise, methods, feedback, motivation, ability & environmental conditions
2
Q
Why is skill acquisition important?
A
- Design effective training programmes
- insight into skill adaptations & applications
3
Q
Skill definition
A
Learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty & efficiency, often with minimal effort or energy
4
Q
Characteristics of a skilled performance
A
- Learned
- permanent changes
- accurate & controlled
- fluent / smooth
- Aesthetic
- efficient & economical (minimal effort)
- Consistent
- goal directed
5
Q
Ability definition
A
Innate, genetically determined traits that form the foundation for the development of skills & performance
6
Q
Ability examples
A
-Balance
- coordination
- strength
-Flexibility
- muscular power & endurance
7
Q
Gross motor ability definition
A
Physical capacity to perform movements that involve large muscle groups
8
Q
Gross motor AbiIity key characteristics
A
- Large muscle groups
-Whole body movements - strength, power, balance, coordination
9
Q
Gross motor ability examples
A
Running
Jumping
Swimming
Cycling
Olympic lifting
10
Q
Psychomotor ability definition
A
Capacity to integrate cognitive function with physical ability enabling individuals to carry out precise movement
11
Q
Psychomotor ability key characteristics
A
Reaction & response time
Accuracy
Muscle memory
Decision making
Anticipation
Coordination
12
Q
Psychomotor ability examples
A
Hitting a ball - cricket
Serve - tennis
Passing ball - football
Routine - gymnastics
13
Q
Skill classification assists coach in planning training by:
A
Targeted practise
Progression design
Performance measurements
Motivation & confidence
14
Q
Environmental continuum
A
Describe whether skill is influenced by environment
Open (unpredictable, changing environment) - passing in football
Closed (predictable, stable environment) - gymnastics vault
15
Q
Pacing/control continuum
A
Describes who control timing/pace of skill
Self paced (athlete chooses when to start, how fast) - golf swing, penalty kick
Externally paced ( timing & pace dictated by external factors - opposition, environment) - receiving badminton shot
16
Q
Muscle involvement continuum
A
Refers to the size and type of muscle used
Fine (small muscle groups for precise movement) - darts throw, archery
Gross ( large muscle groups, whole body movements) - running, football shot
17
Q
Continuity continuum
A
Describes whether a skill has a clear beginning or end
Discrete (clear beginning & end) - tennis serve, boxing punch
Serial (sequence of discrete skills) - triple jump, gymnastics routine
Continuous (no clear beginning or end) - running, cycling
18
Q
Organisation continuum
A
How easily a skill can be broken into subroutines
Low organisation (easily broken down into subroutines) - triple jump
High organisation (difficult to separate into subroutines) - cartwheel, golf swing
19
Q
Difficulty continuum
A
How complex a skill is
Simple (little concentration & decision making) - running, underarm throw
Complex (high concentration, coordination& decision making) - gymnastics vault, dribbling past defenders
20
Q
Learning definition
A
Permanent change in behaviour that is reflected in change of performance
21
Q
Performance definition
A
Demonstration of the solving of a problem or task t a given moment (a temporary phenomenon)
22
Q
Link between learning and performance
A
As learning takes place, we usually see a gradual improvement in performance
23
Q
Three stages of learning
A
Cognitive → associative → autonomous
24
Q
Cognitive stage
A
(Beginner)
- inconsistent, high levels or error
- relies on guidance & demonstrations
- slow, deliberate, uncoordinated movement
- reliance on extrinsic feedback
- limited attention capacity - brief instructions needed
- no kinaesthetic feedback
- lacks confidence - need positive reinforcement
25
Associative stage
(Intermediate)
- performance more consistent
- more accurate
- fewer mistakes, can recognise and correct
- motor skills smoother & more coordinated
- more intrinsic & kinaesthetic feedback
- refines timing, technique & decision making
26
Autonomous stage
(Expert)
- skills performed automatically & fluently
- highly consistent, efficient & adaptable
- intrinsic & kinaesthetic feedback dominates
- less conscious effort needed
- errors are rare, quick corrections
- have spare attention capacity
27
Types of learning curves
Linear
Negatively accelerated
Positively accelerated
Sigmoid
28
Linear learning curve
Rate of improvement is directly proportional to time practising
There is constant improvement
Occurs when is skill is simple or the performer is highly motivated
29
Positive acceleration learning curve
Slow progress followed by rapid improvement
When a skill is complex at the start but once understood speeds up
30
Negative acceleration learning curve
Rapid progress early on but then plateaus as learning slows
Common when learning a skill that is easy to grasp but difficult to perfect
31
Sigmoid learning curve
Combination of slow initial learning followed by rapid improvement then a plateau
Struggle at first, make a breakthrough, level off
32
Factors that could cause a plateau
Not skilful enough to progress
Too much information
Feedback/coaching not detailed enough for progress
Lack of motivation
Fatigue of performer
33
Strategies to improve plateau
Rewards - both intrinsic and extrinsic
Smaller chunks of information and subroutines
Appropriate practise
Effective feedback
Effective and planned recovery
34
Observational learning
How we learn from me environment & those around us (nurture)
35
Modelling acronym
Demonstration
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Matching performance
36
Demonstration
Skilled performer/coach (model) demonstrates skill
Should be accurate, clear, relevant to learner’s ability
37
Attention
Demonstration must be seen and heard, precise, focus on specific teaching points & cues, avoid information overload
38
Retention
Must be able to retain info in memory and recall it
Importance of practise and mental rehearsal
39
Motor reproduction
Allow time for physical practise of the skill, graduated approach to allow success, have ability to do the task
40
Motivation
Without motivation the learner won’t pay attention, remember or practise the skills
Importance of feedback and reinforcement
41
Matching performance
Able to successfully copy demonstration and be ready to progress
42
Transfer of learning
The effect that learning one task has in the learning of another
Examines how prior experiences affect the acquisition of new skills or the performance of tasks
43
6 types of transfer of learning
Positive
Negative
Zero
Bilateral
Proactive
Retroactive
44
Positive transfer of learning
When previous learning helps with new learning
Eg. Netball player with good hand eye coordination finds it easier to learn basketball passing techniques
45
Negative transfer of learning
When previous learning hinders new learning
Eg. Badminton player may struggle when learning tennis due to differences in wrist movements
46
Zero transfer of learning
When previous learning has no impact on new learning
Learning how to swim has no effect in learning how to ride a bike
47
Bilateral transfer of learning
When skills learned on one side of the body transfer to the other side
Eg. A footballer who can kick well with their right foot learns to kick with their left foot easier
48
Proactive transfer of learning
When old learning affects the learning of a new skill
Eg. A gymnasts experience with balance skills helps them to learn a new routine on the beam
49
Retroactive transfer of learning
When learning a new skill influences previous learning
Eg. A sprinter who improves their technique may find their previous form feels unnatural
50
guidance definition
any information we give to learners to help them develop skills
51
what is guidance affected by?
- stage of learning of individual
- nature of activity
- individual preferences
- individual's personality, motivation, age & ability
- learning environments
52
what are the 4 types of guidance?
verbal
visual
manual
mechanical
53
visual guidance
physically showing how to execute a skill
54
visual guidance examples
demonstrations
videos
pictures
diagrams
55
advantages of visual guidance
- breaks down skill
- see correct technique
- beginners who need to see a model to copy
- teach large groups
- provides visual aids/targets
- aids observational learning
- aids verbal guidance
- build a mental image
- time effective
56
disadvantages of visual guidance
- if demo is incorrect, may copy bad technique
- complex skills may be hard to demonstrate effectively
- struggle to process visual info
- demotivating if too complex
- demo needs to be done by someone of similar standard
- become reliant on demo
- can't deliver during performance
57
stage of learning suited to visual guidance
cognitive - allows learner to build a mental image & understanding of what the skill should look like
58
verbal guidance
spoken instructions or feedback given
59
verbal guidance examples
prompts, cues, explanations
60
advantages of verbal guidance
- can use alongside other methods
- given quickly & during performance
- provide key tips & motivation
- vital for marginal gains
61
disadvantages of verbal guidance
- beginners may struggle to understand
- too much info can be confusing
- unclear instructions can lead to incorrect technique
- lose focus if too lengthy
- beginners won't know terminology
- coach needs experience
62
stage of learning suited to verbal guidance
cognitive - if more concise, doesn't cause overload
associative - already have mental image so can correct
autonomous - more explained, greater attention capacity
63
manual guidance
physical support or assistance to guide through skill
64
manual guidance examples
supporting gymnast in somersault
guide player through tennis serve
65
advantages of manual guidance
- feel correct movement pattern to build kinaesthetics
- build confidence
- useful to learn correct technique
- reduce risk of injury
66
disadvantages of manual guidance
- may become overdependent
- may feel intrusive or uncomfortable
- limit development of independent execution
- only do for performer at a time
- restricts movement
67
stage of learning suited to manual guidence
cognitive - learn movement patten with correct technique
68
mechanical guidance
use of equipment or aids to support movement
69
mechanical guidance examples
harness on trampoline
floats in swimming
70
advantages of mechanical guidance
- increases safety
- helps gain confidence
- used for repetitive practise without fall risk
- help maintain correct posture & movement
71
disadvantages of mechanical guidance
- may become too reliant
- doesn't fully replicate real conditions
- equipment may be expensive
- restricts movement
72
stage of learning suited to mechanical guidance
cognitive - learn movement pattern
autonomous - develop complex skills
73
What factors affect the type of practise used?
- stage of learning
- personality & motivation
- classification of skill
- facilities, equipment & time available
- size & structure of group
74
Mental rehearsal definition
Athlete visualises themself successfully performing a skill with no actual physical movement involved
75
Benefits mental rehearsal
Cognitive - think about strategies & tactics can help learner make correct decision (anticipation)
Neuromuscular- mental practise causes muscular neurones to fire as if the muscle is actually active
Confidence - improve as the performer concentrates on successful & correct performance
76
What are the types of practise?
Fixed
Variable
Massed
Distributed
Whole
Part
Progressive part
Whole-part-whole
77
Fixed practise
Repetition of a skill in a constant, unchanging environment
78
Fixed practise application
- Learning closed skills
-Promotes over learning
Eg. Gymnasts & divers repeating skills until they become autonomous
79
Fixed practise advantages
- movement becomes 'over learned' & little conscious attention is needed
-skill can be reproduced consistently
- helps develop muscle memory
- develops kinaesthesis
- skill mastery
80
Fixed practise disadvantages
- Lack of variability & challenge can become boring
- lead to increased fatigue & overuse injuries
- doesn't always prepare performers for when things go wrong
- poor habits may develop
- affect team sports & open skills
81
Variable practise
Repeating skill in changing conditions to incorporate as many different situations as possible to replicate varying competition situations
82
Variable practise application
- Learning open skills
- interaction & decision-making involved in competitive practise
- practise in realistic situations
Eg football players may strike balls coming in from different angles
83
Variable practise advantages
- enables performer to apply skill to different situations
-Extends learners schema
-Allows development of motor programmes in the long-term memory
-More motivation as less boring
- practise in realistic situations
-Improves decision making & adaptability
84
Variable practise disadvantages
- Difficult to simulate appropriate competitive situations
- slows down initial learning due to changing conditions
- may cause frustration if progress feels inconsistent
- time consuming to plan
85
Massed practise
Repeating A skill numerous times with few or no rest periods
86
Massed practise application
- Learning simple, discrete, fine skills
- performers are highly experienced, fit & motivated
Eg swimmers doing 20 laps without a break
87
Massed practise advantages
- Allows skills to become habitual withering development of motor programmes
- time efficient for coach
- short practise time
-Builds endurance & concentration
-Efficient for skills that require muscle memory (kinaesthesis)
- mimics real game fatigue
- best for autonomous learners
88
89
Massed practise disadvantages
- Doesn't always allow time for feedback
- it done with tiring skills, could increase fatigue & lead to boredom
- risk that skill is unlearned - may change technique when tired
- may cause overuse injuries
90
Distributed practise
Division of practise of a skill with recovery & rest periods between each attempt
91
Distributed practise application
-Learning new or complicated skill
- danger of injury if performer is fatigued
- earIy stages of learning
-Low motivation
Eg. Badminton player taking breaks between drils
92
Distributed practise advantages
- Good for learning most skills
- time to recover physically & mentally - reduce risk of fatigue & injury
- Improves retention
-Helps with motivation & concentration
- offers opportunity to apply feedback
- suited to cognitive & associative learner who require extrinsic feedback
93
Distributed practise disadvantages
- Unsuitable for complex skills
- requires extra time to complete training
- may lose focus during breaks
- disrupts flow for autonomous learners
-Lead to cognitive overload if coach provides too much feedback
94
Whole practise
practise skill in its entirety/as a complete action
95
whole practise application
- skill is continuous, highly organised
- learning serial & complex skills
eg. golf swing - hard to break into parts
96
whole practise advantages
- allows performer to develop kinaesthetic awareness of a skill
- experience timing needed to execute - movement becomes fluent
- appreciation of end product - develop own schema, easier to transfer to game situation
- time efficient
- more realistic
97
whole practise disadvantages
- large amounts of information to process - more suitable for autonomous stage
- difficult for cognitive learners
- difficult for complex skills
- difficult to isolate specific weaknesses
- lead to fatigue & injury
- not suited for those with low attention capacity
98
part practise
skill is broken down into subroutines to practise before putting together
99
part practise application
- skill is low organisation
- learning serial & complex skills
eg. working on javelin throw from standing before adding run up
100
part practise advantages
- aspects of skill can be refined before combining
- prevent physical & cognitive overload
- prevent beginner becoming too fatigued
- allows specific aspects to be focussed on - increases confidence
- reduce risk of injury
- provides early success
101
part practise disadvantages
- struggle to appreciate kinaesthetic feel - results in loss of fluidity
- transfer from part to whole may be ineffective
- time consuming & tedious process
- demotivate if initial subroutine is not correct
- form bad habits
- subroutine has to be well learned before progression
102
progressive part practise
gradual training & linking
A, B, A+B, C, A+B+C
103
progressive part practise application
- linked to early stages of learning
- useful for complex/serial skills where discrete elements aren't related to the previous one
eg. triple jump in athletics
104
progressive part practise advantages
- good for cognitive performers - provides stages of success, increases motivation
- reduce danger by learning early parts before attempting difficult parts
- builds confidence when mastered each subroutine
- encourages mastery of each part of the skill
105
progressive part practise disadavantages
- relies on first part being correct, if incorrect whole skill is lost
- time consuming
- difficult to apply transition between each skill
- reduces kinaesthesis of whole skill
106
whole-part-whole practise
watch all learners w=complete whole skill, then break down for some learners to work on weaknesses
used when taking a new group
107
whole-part-whole practise application
swimming lesson - watch all, break down for some to work on arm action, leg action etc
108
whole-part-whole practise advantages
- helps understand importance of individual components in full movement
- allows specific error correction
- can feel kinaesthesia of whole skill before breaking down
- encourages skill transfer
- identify clear strengths & weaknesses for targeted improvements
- targeted improvements so time efficient practise
- associative & autonomous learner - allow refinement
109
whole-part-whole practise disadvantages
- can be challenging to isolate & reintegrate smoothly
- requires good time management
- can be disjointed if not managed well
- not suited to cognitive learners if whole skill is challenging at first
- requires experienced coach
- not effective for large groups who may have different abilities
110
what is operant conditioning?
achieved via reward or punishment which effects further actions
111
what is an SR bond?
stimulus-response bond
connection between a stimulus and the response given
112
positive reinforcement definition
rewarding the desired response with praise or a reward
something is added
113
what effect does positive reinforcement have on the SR bond?
strengthens bond
response more likely to be repeated
114
example of positive reinforcement
footballer is praised when tracking back against a striker to make a tackle
rewarded by extra game time
115
negative reinforcement definition
involves removing an unpleasant stimulus when the desired behaviour is performed
something is removed
116
what effect does negative reinforcement have on SR bond?
strengthens bond
response more likely to be repeated
117
example of negative reinforcement
swimmer who consistently trains well has less intense training sessions
118
punishment definition
involves adding an unpleasant consequence or removing a reward to discourage undesired behaviour
119
what effect does punishment have on SR bond?
weakens SR bond
action less likely to be repeated in future
120
example of punishement
footballer who makes dangerous tackle is given red card
121
what is drive reduction theory?
an athlete's drive (motivation) will reduce after a task is successfully completed
122
drive reduction theory process
1. athlete motivated to achieve
2. when learning has drive to be successful
3. leads to goal-directed behaviour
4. once skill mastered, drive reduces
123
example of drive reduction
footballer sets goal of scoring 20 goals in a season so will have increased motivation to achieve this
when the goal is achieved, motivation decreases
could set a new, higher goal to increase motivation again
124
functions of feedback
motivate - success/failure can be motivational
reinforce - strengthen/weaken SR bond
inform - strengths/weaknesses
125
feedback is most effective when ...
accurate
concise
immediate
easily understood
truthful
126
intrinsic feedback
comes from your senses when performing (kinaesthesis)
eg. feeling balanced during a jump in gymnastics
127
extrinsic feedback
comes from external sources
eg. coach, video
128
types of extrinsic feedback
positive
negative
knowledge of results
knowledge of performance
concurrent
terminal
129
positive feedback
reinforces what was done correctly to encourage repetition
eg. 'well done sticking the landing, your balance has improved'
130
negative feedback
highlights mistakes (constructive criticism) & areas for improvement
eg. 'you're losing your shape, try to stay tucked for longer to have a faster rotation'
131
knowledge of results
focuses on outcome, facts & figures
eg. 'you scored 8/10 free throws'
132
knowledge of performance
focuses on quality of movement, regardless of outcome
eg. 'your follow-through on the shot was too short'
133
concurrent feedback
given during a performance
eg. 'keep your legs straight'
134
terminal feedback
given at end of performance
eg. 'next time straighten your arms'
