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Biomedicine (Semester II) > 12. Reproductive System > Flashcards

12. Reproductive System Flashcards

1
Q

Reproduction: definition

A

The production of new offspring

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2
Q

What does sexual reproduction involve?

A

Meiosis

Fertilisation

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3
Q

What happens in meiosis?

A

This produces male (sperm) and female (ova) gametes

These are haploid so have 23 chromosomes each

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4
Q

What is genetic variability?

A

Offspring having a mix of genes inherited from each parent

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5
Q

What does fertilisation produce?

A

A zygote

This contains 46 chromosomes

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6
Q

Functions of the reproduction system: female

A 
Formation of ova (female gametes)
Reception of spermatozoa (male gametes)
Provide suitable environment for fertilisation/foetus
Parturition (childbirth)
Lactation
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7
Q

Functions of the reproduction system: male

A

Production of spermatozoa (male gametes)

Transmission of spermatozoa to the female

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8
Q

What are breasts?

A

Accessory glands of the female reproductive system

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9
Q

What is a mammary gland?

A

A modified sweat gland that produces milk

Found in breast

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10
Q

What does each mammary gland consist of?

A

15-20 lobes separated by adipose tissue

Each lobe contains small, grapelike clusters of glands called alveoli

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11
Q

What are suspensory ligaments?

A

These support the breast between the skin and the underlying fascia

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12
Q

What happens during lactation?

A

Myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli contract and propel milk into the lactiferous ducts

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13
Q

Where can milk be stored?

A

In the lactiferous sinuses

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14
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

Stimulates the production of milk

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15
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

Causes milk ejection during suckling

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16
Q

What does the uterus do?

A

Pathway for sperm
Site of zygote implantation
Location for foetal development
Contracts to initiate labour

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17
Q

What is a zygote?

A

Fertilised egg

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18
Q

Uterus walls: layers

A
  1. Perimetrium
  2. Myometrium
  3. Endometrium
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19
Q

Perimetrium

A

The outer layer of the uterus wall

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20
Q

Myometrium

A

The middle layer of the uterus wall

Has 3 layers of smooth muscle

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21
Q

Endometrium

A 
The inner layer of the uterus wall
High vascular (rich supply of blood vessels)
Divided into the:
1. Stratum functionalis
2. Stratum basalis
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22
Q

Stratum functionalis

A

Layer of the endometrium that sloughs off during menstruation

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23
Q

Stratum basalis

A

Permanent deeper layer of the endometrium

Regenerates the stratum functionalis ready for the implantation of a fertilised egg (zygote)

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24
Q

Uterus: anatomy

A

Fundus (top bit)
Body (hollow bit)
Cervix (narrow bit)

Size and shape of a pear

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25
Q

Broad ligament

A

This holds the uterus and ovaries in place

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26
Q

Uterus: location

A

Situated between the bladder (anterior) and the rectum (posterior)

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27
Q

What is an embryo?

A

An embedded zygote <8 weeks

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28
Q

What is a foetus?

A

An embryo >8 weeks

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29
Q

Placenta: functions

A

Allows oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from maternal blood into foetal blood

Allows carbon dioxide and waste to move in the opposite direction

Produces hormones that are needed to maintain the pregnancy

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30
Q

What is the placenta attached to?

A

The endometrium

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31
Q

Why is the placenta unique?

A

By the beginning of the 12th week, it contains 2 distinct regions from two individuals

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32
Q

What is the umbilical cord?

A

Connects the placenta to the embryo/foetus

Around 50-60cm long

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33
Q

What can’t pass through the protective barrier in the placenta?

A

Blood cells

Most micro-organisms

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34
Q

What can pass through the protective barrier in the placenta?

A 
HIV
Measles
Polio
Chicken pox
Alcohol
Drugs
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35
Q

What controls the transfer of nutrients to the foetus?

A

Proteins called nutrient transporters

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36
Q

Placenta: hormones

A 
Progesterone
Oestrogen
Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG)
Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)
Relaxin
Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
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37
Q

Progesterone

A

Maintains endometrial lining to sustain and nourish the foetus

Produced by corpus luteum until 8 weeks

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38
Q

Oestrogen

A

Promotes growth of breast tissue and myometrium

Produced by corpus luteum until 8 weeks

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39
Q

Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG)

A

Only produced during pregnancy

Maintains corpus luteum for 8 weeks and increases transfer of nutrients to foetus

Related to morning sickness

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40
Q

Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)

A

Increases the amount of glucose and lipids in the maternal blood

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41
Q

Relaxin

A

Targets ligaments and relaxes them

Produced by the corpus luteum and then placenta

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42
Q

Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone (CRH)

A

Triggers release of cortisol from the adrenal glands

Prevents rejection of foetus/placenta (as seen as ‘foreign invaders’)

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43
Q

Placenta Praevia

A

When the placenta attaches to the lower part of the uterine wall

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44
Q

Risks of placenta praevia

A

Obstructing the opening of the cervix (more risk with multiple births as more placentas present)

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45
Q

When is it possible for placenta praevia to resolve itself?

A

During 1st trimester

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46
Q

What can happen in placenta praevia during the 2nd and 3rd trimester?

A

Prone to haemorrhage

Wall of cervix stretches and can detach from placenta

Uterine vessels rupture and cause ante-partum vaginal bleeding

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47
Q

What is the treatment for placenta praevia in the later stages?

A

C-section

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48
Q

Placenta Accreta

A

Abnormally deep attachment of the placenta through the endometrium into the myometrium

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49
Q

Increta

A

If the placenta invades the myometrium

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50
Q

Percreta

A

If the placenta goes through the uterine wall to surrounding viscera e.g. the bladder

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51
Q

What causes placenta accreta?

A

Thin, inadequate stratum basalis in endometrium
Placenta has to dig deeper when implanting

Due to previous C-section, scrapping procedure, fibroid removal, placenta praevia

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52
Q

Risks of placenta accreta

A

Post-partum haemorrhage

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53
Q

Placenta Abruption

A

When the blood vessels adhering the placenta to the uterine wall rupture, leading to separation of the placenta from the uterus

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54
Q

Risk factors for placenta abruption

A 
Smoking
Maternal hypertension (pre-eclampsia)
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55
Q

Signs and symptoms of placenta abruption

A

Abdominal pain

Ante-partum bleeding

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56
Q

Placenta abruption: epidemiology

A

Occurs in 1% of pregnancies worldwide

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57
Q

In placenta abruption, what happens to the baby <30 weeks?

A

Monitor vitals until baby is old enough to deliver safely

Foetal lungs matured with corticosteroids

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58
Q

In placenta abruption, what happens to the baby >30 weeks?

A

Delivery

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59
Q

Twins: definition

A

Siblings that result from same pregnancy

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60
Q

Monozygotic twins

A

Identical twins with same genetic information

Originate from a single fertilised ovum
One egg, one sperm

The zygote splits into two embryos but share same placenta

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61
Q

Dizygotic twins

A

Non-identical

Release of two ova with both being fertilised and implanted independently
Two eggs, two sperm

Two different placentas

(So like two separate pregnancies in one)

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62
Q

Fallopian tubes

A

These extend laterally from the uterus to the ovaries

Provide a route for sperm to meet the ova - and for the ova to reach the uterus

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63
Q

What are fimbriae?

A

Finger-like projections that surround the ovary and sweep the ova into the fallopian tubes

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64
Q

How does the fallopian tube move the ova from the ovary to the uterus?

A
  1. Tubes are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium that help move the ova towards the uterus
  2. Smooth muscle layer performs peristalsis to assist in ova movement
65
Q

Ovaries

A

The female gonads

Paired glands

Resemble size and shape of almonds

Atrophy after menopause

66
Q

What is the ovarian ligament?

A

This anchors the ovaries to the uterus

67
Q

Which hormones do the ovaries secrete?

A

Oestrogen

Progesterone

68
Q

Oogenesis

A

The formation of an egg (female gamete) in the ovaries

69
Q

Where does oogenesis begin?

A

In the foetus

70
Q

Primary oocytes

A

Formed by germ cells during foetal development
Stops at birth
Surrounded by a layer of follicular cells

71
Q

Primordial follicle

A

A group of primary oocytes surrounded by a layer of follicular cells

72
Q

How many follicles will mature and ovulate during a woman’s reproductive lifetime?

A

Around 400

73
Q

Which hormones are involved in oogenesis post-puberty?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone

Luteinising hormone

74
Q

What happens in oogenesis post-puberty?

A

FSH and LH are released by the anterior pituitary gland

FSH stimulates the maturation of the primordial follicles into a secondary oocyte

LH triggers ovulation - the release of the secondary oocyte

75
Q

Primordial follicle maturation process

A

Primordial follicle > primary follicle > secondary follicle > mature follicle

76
Q

Corpus luteum

A

The remains of the ovarian follicle once the secondary oocyte has been released

This produces progesterone and some oestrogen

Human chorionic gonadotrophin prevents the corpus luteum from degrading if secondary oocyte is fertilised

77
Q

Corpus albicans

A

What the corpus luteum becomes if the secondary oocyte isn’t fertilised

78
Q

How long does the follicle maturation process take?

A

1 year

79
Q

How long does the menstrual cycle generally last?

A

24-35 days

80
Q

What is the average length of the menstrual cycle?

A

28 days

81
Q

What are the four phases of the menstrual cycle?

A
  1. Menstrual phase
  2. Pre-ovulatory phase
  3. Ovulation
  4. Post-ovulatory phase
82
Q

When does the menstrual phase happen?

A

Days 1-5

83
Q

What happens during the menstrual phase?

A

Uterus: endometrium is shed in a response to progesterone lowering

Ovaries: follicles develop under the influence of FSH

84
Q

When does the pre-ovulatory phase happen?

A

Days 6-13

85
Q

What happens during the pre-ovulatory phase?

A

Uterus: endometrium thickens in response to rising oestrogen levels

Ovaries: one follicle starts to mature and inhibin is secreted which decreases the secretion of FSH (stops over follicles developing)

86
Q

When does the ovulation phase happen?

A

Day 14

87
Q

What happens during the ovulation phase?

A

Ovaries: high oestrogen levels create a positive feedback loop, stimulating LH secretion

LH causes rupture of the mature follicle and expulsion of the egg

88
Q

When does the post-ovulatory phase happen?

A

Days 15-28

89
Q

What happens during the post-ovulatory phase?

A

The corpus luteum forms from the follicle wall

It produces progesterone and some oestrogen to maintain the endometrium for pregnancy

90
Q

Which hormones control the ovaries?

A

FSH

LH

91
Q

Which hormones control the uterus?

A

Oestrogen

Progesterone

92
Q

In what order do the hormones dominate during the menstrual cycle?

A

FSH
Oestrogen
LH
Progesterone

93
Q

What happens to a fertilised egg (zygote)?

A

Zygote embeds in the uterine wall

Embryo produces human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) which maintains and stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone and some oestrogen

After a few weeks the placenta takes over the role of producing hCG and progesterone to maintain the pregnancy

94
Q

What happens to a non-fertilised egg?

A

After 14 days, the corpus luteum degenerates into the corpus albicans

Progesterone and oestrogen levels drop and a new menstrual cycle begins

95
Q

What is puberty?

A

The period when the potential for sexual reproduction is reached

Internal reproductive organs mature and the first period happens (menarche)

96
Q

When does puberty typically occur?

A

Between 10-14 years old

97
Q

What happens as puberty starts?

A

The start of puberty is marked by pulses of LH and FSH, each triggered by a burst of GnRH

98
Q

What happens as puberty advances?

A

The hormone pulses occur during the day as well as at night

These increase over 3-4 years

99
Q

What are the secondary characteristics of puberty (females)?

A

Breast development
Hair growth (pubic/axillary/legs)
Hips widen
Voice deepens

100
Q

What is the menopause?

A

Persistent cessation of menstruation for 12 consecutive months

101
Q

At what age does menopause usually happen?

A

45-55 years old

102
Q

What happens pathophysiologically when menopause occurs?

A

The number of follicles becomes exhausted

Oestrogen produced decreases
Decline in ovulation
Progesterone deceases

103
Q

What affect does low oestrogen and progesterone have on other hormones?

A

FSH and LH levels increase

104
Q

Which procedure can induce the menopause?

A

Hysterectomy

105
Q

Menopause: signs and symptoms

A 
Hot flushes and increased sweating
Mood changes, irritability, anxiety
Increased risk of UTIs
Breast shrinkage, sparse pubic/axillary hair
Osteoporosis
Deceased libido
Vaginal dryness
Painful intercourse
106
Q

Menopause: allopathic treatment

A

HRT

107
Q

How can HRT help during the menopause?

A

It can be used to relieve menopausal symptoms
Reduce risk of osteoporosis

But it only delays the actual menopause

108
Q

What risks does taking HRT bring?

A

Breast and endometrial cancer
DVT
Stroke
Heart disease

109
Q

What does the male reproductive system consist of?

A 
Two of the following:
Testes
Epididymides
Vas deferens
Spermatic cords
Seminal vesicles
Ejaculatory ducts

One of the following:
Prostate gland
Penis

110
Q

What does the penis consist of?

A

Root (within pelvic cavity)

Body

111
Q

What does the penis body consist of?

A 
Three cylindrical masses of erectile tissue
Glans penis (the enlarged ending)
112
Q

When does the penis fill with blood?

A

During sexual arousal

During REM sleep

113
Q

Which nervous system are the erectile tissue and involuntary muscle stimulated by?

A

Parasympathetic

114
Q

Which substance causes vasodilation of the penis?

A

Nitric oxide

115
Q

Where do the testes develop?

A

In the pelvic cavity (near kidneys)

They descend into the scrotum via the inguinal canals between around 2 months before birth

116
Q

What are seminiferous tubules?

A

Area in the testes that produce sperm

117
Q

How long does it take to produce sperm?

A

Around 70 days

118
Q

Which hormone is involved in sperm production?

A

FSH

119
Q

What is the role of the testes?

A
  1. Produce sperm

2. Produce and secrete testosterone

120
Q

Which hormone is involved in testosterone production?

A

LH

121
Q

From which substance is testosterone made?

A

Cholesterol

122
Q

Where in the testes is testosterone made?

A

Leydig cells

123
Q

What are lobules?

A

Areas in the testes that contain the seminiferous tubules

124
Q

How many lobules are there per testicle?

A

200-300

125
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

Area in the testes where mature sperm is stored

126
Q

How does sperm get from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis?

A

Through muscle contraction

127
Q

How many sperm are produced each day?

A

300 million

128
Q

How long can sperm live for in the epididymis?

A

Several months

129
Q

How many sperm are ejaculated?

A

Around 100 million per ml

130
Q

What temperature is best for the production of sperm?

A

3 degrees C below body temperature

131
Q

Sperm: anatomy

A

Head
Acrosome
Body
Tail

132
Q

What does the head of the sperm contain?

A

Nucleus

133
Q

What is the acrosome?

A

Vesicle covering the head of the sperm

Contains enzymes to penetrate the egg

134
Q

What is the body of the sperm filled with?

A

Mitochondria to fuel the tail

135
Q

What is the function of the sperm tail?

A

To help it swim

136
Q

What happens to sperm after it leaves the epididymis?

A

It’s expelled through the vas deferens into the ejaculatory duct

137
Q

What happens to sperm in the ejaculatory duct?

A

Semen is secreted and mixed with the sperm

138
Q

Which glands produce semen?

A

Seminal vesicles

Prostate gland

139
Q

What are the seminal vesicles?

A

Pair of glands located behind the bladder

They produce an alkaline fluid that makes up 60% of semen

140
Q

What does the semen produced by the seminal vesicles contain?

A

Nutrients (e.g. fructose) to nourish sperm

141
Q

What is the prostate gland?

A

Wraps around the male urethra

Secretes a thin, milky fluid that makes up 30% of semen

142
Q

What does the semen produced by the prostate gland contain?

A

Nutrients for ATP production

Anticoagulants to increase fluidity

143
Q

Which anticoagulants are included in the semen secreted by the prostate gland?

A

Citric acid
Proteolytic enzymes
Prostate specific antigen (PSA)
Pepsinogen

144
Q

What is semen?

A

Alkaline fluid that protects sperm from urethral and vaginal acidity

145
Q

What is the vas deferens?

A

Duct that transports sperm from the testicle to the urethra

146
Q

What are the Cowper’s Glands?

A

They secrete an alkaline, mucous fluid that neutralises urinary acids in the urethra prior to ejaculation

Also lubricate the end of the penis

147
Q

What happens during sexual arousal?

A

Smooth muscle in the epididymis and vas deferens propel sperm into the ejaculatory ducts

Muscles surrounding the base of the urethra cause semen to eject out of the penis during orgasm

148
Q

Considerations when taking case history

A

Menstruation - cycle/bleeding time/amount of blood/quality
Breasts - tenderness, galactorrhoea
Relationship of symptoms to cycle
Hirsutism (male hair pattern growth) and acne
Altered libido and impotence
Problems with intercourse
Past and present fertility plans
Methods of contraception
Operations
Additional symptoms e.g. urinary problems
Family history

149
Q

Menarche

A

The age of the first period

150
Q

Metrorrhagia

A

Mid-cycle bleeding

151
Q

Menorrhagia

A

Increased menstrual bleeding

152
Q

Amenorrhoea

A

Absence of periods

153
Q

Dysmenorrhoea

A

Painful periods

154
Q

Polymenorrhea

A

Short cycle, frequent periods

155
Q

Oligomenorrhea

A

Infrequent cycles

156
Q

Galactorrhoea

A

Lactation without pregnancy

157
Q

Dyspareunia

A

Pain on intercourse (f)

158
Q

Gynaecomastia

A

Presence of enlarged breast tissue in a male

Biomedicine (Semester II) (20 decks)

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