10. Thinking and Problem Solving

Question 1

What is focused vs unfocused thinking

Answer 1

focused thinking has a clear starting point + goal

unfocused thinking is like daydreaming

Question 2

What are well-defined vs ill-defined problems

Answer 2

Well-defined problems have a clear goal + rules

Ill-defined problems don’t have goals, starting information, or steps listed

Question 3

What is the Generate and Test technique for problem-solving

Answer 3

what it sounds like

Question 4

What is means-ends analysis technique for problem solving

Answer 4

Comparing the goal to the starting place and thinking of ways to overcome the difference
- creating subgoals

Question 5

What is working backward technique for problem-solving

Answer 5

start with the last step, and then the next-last step, etc.

Question 6

What is the reasoning by analogy problem

Answer 6

Using knowledge from one domain and applying it to a different domain

etc. Tumour problem

Question 7

Name four common problem solving strategies

Answer 7

Generate and test
Means ends analysis
Working backwards
Reasoning by analogy

Question 8

What is a mental set

Answer 8

The tendency to adopt a certain framework or see things in a certain way rather than other more plausible ways

Jars arithmetic

Question 9

What is functional fixedness

Answer 9

Instance of mental set, develop a rigid mental set for how an object might be used

Screwdriver riddle

Question 10

T/F
Gobet and Simon concluded that Kasparov’s superiority in chess came from his ability to plan future moves

Answer 10

F

His ability to recognize patterns
- time pressure of simultaneous games did not affect his gameplay quality

Experts vs. Novices

Question 11

What are two types of explanations for creative insight

Answer 11

• creativity as special cognitive processing
• creativity as the result of normal, everyday cognition

Question 12

What is the incubation hypothesis for creativity + criticisms

Answer 12

While your mind is running other processes, there is still processing (incubation) happening in the background

• difficult to test

Question 13

According to Perkins, creativity is a result of normal cognition. He describes 3 cognitive processes that are everyday but also underlie creative invention. These are:

Answer 13

Directed remembering
- make past experiences consistent with various constraints

Noticing
- where are the problems?

Contrary recognition
- ability to recognize objects for something else

Question 14

What is reasoning vs thinking

Answer 14

Reasoning is usually more focused and we have one or more particular goals in mind, using inferences

Question 15

Explain deductive vs inductive reasoning

Answer 15

deductive gos from general to specific
inductive goes from specific to a generalization

Question 16

What does it mean for an argument to have deductive validity

Answer 16

conclusions from deductions are true

Question 17

What does it mean for an argument to have inductive strength

Answer 17

if it is improbable (but not impossible) for premises to be true and the conclusion false

Question 18

What is propositional reasoning vs syllogistic reasoning

Answer 18

propsitional uses logical connectives, truth table

syllogistic reasoning deals with quantifiers

Question 19

What is confirmation bias and an experiment to go with it

Answer 19

when you try to confirm that something is in accordance with what you believe, rather than trying to find counter examples

2 4 6 test for patterns

Question 20

What is the content effect on reasoning performance

Answer 20

people perform differently given the same premises, depending on what the premises are about

Think AK47 card task

Question 21

How might the content effect on the Wason Selection test (conditional reasoning) be explained

Answer 21

the memory cueing explanation:
calling to mind certain information that is relevant to the rule when the content is something that can be experienced

Question 22

What is the believability effect on reasoning performance

Answer 22

people are more likely to judge that a conclusion is valid if it reinforces their initial assumptions, regardless of if it follows from the premises

Question 23

What are 2 theoretical approaches to the study of reasoning

Answer 23

the rules approach
the mental models approach

Question 24

Explain the difference between the rules based on mental model approach to reasoning

Answer 24

rules based:
- people rely on implicit special-purpose rules
- rules can be sensitive to context and domain specific (adaptable)

Mental model:
- reasoning is similar to language comprehension, and we generate a mental model for the premises
- reasoning occurs when we try to generate as many alternative models as we can to support/disprove

Question 25

How do chess masters differ from novices in their processing of chessboards

Answer 25

they draw a lot more information and can recall a lot more information from a brief exposure

• requires chessboard to be arranged in a possible configuration

Question 26

What is the Wason selection Tool experiment

Answer 26

AD47 card test for propositional/conditional reasoning

Question 27

What is conditional vs categorical reasoning

Answer 27

propositional vs syllogistic

Question 28

What does the dual process of reasoning describe

Answer 28

type 1 reasoning: fast reasoning
type 2 reasoning: slower and deliberate

Question 29

What does neurological models of reasoning tend to support at the moment

Answer 29

mental models approach, because a lot of visual and spatial perception areas were involved