Zeta

Question 1

Experiment Notes

Answer 1

1. Anabolic (synthesis) is endothermic and non-spontaneous
2. If unique polypeptides the formular 2^X can work but if unique, choose the total number of polypeptides (5!) divided by the number of (uniques factorial). If two uniques (5!/(2!2!))
3. Mechanical Energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energy
4. Vicinal bonds denote substituents attached to adjacent atoms in a ring or chain.
5. Do not forget that liver cells as well as muscles store glycogen. They also just have different forms of enzymes that catalyze its breakdown.
6. Note that Eastern people blame more things on situational than Western people do
7. Compared to the locus of control and self-serving bias, self-serving bias is the better answer on the basis of successes.
8. A correlation test will be best if all the variables are continuous vs categorical

Question 2

Classical Twin Study according to ExamKrackers

Answer 2

1. It separates the effects of shared environment and genetic influences by comparing sets of monozygotic and dizygotic twins that were each raised in the same household

Question 3

Inferring Causality

Answer 3

1. Correlation
2. Random assignment
3. Temporailty

Question 4

Rate of various disorders

Answer 4

1. Schizophrenia -1 %

2. Anxiety Disorders - 3.5 % FOR ONE AND ALL WILL BE MORE!

Question 5

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Answer 5

They describe situations where thought processes drive behavior

2. Drive reduction - reduces internal physiological responses
3. Incentive - External motivation
4. Note that Preoperational kids are egocentric and unable to understand the motivations of those around them

Question 6

Notes Again

Answer 6

1. Whenever memory, it is REM. Distinctions include: explicit will be stage 3 and procedural implicit will be REM sleep
2. Increased Na+ leads to increased blood osmolarity, leading to increased thirst and increased blood volume.

Question 7

Cell Differentiation

Answer 7

To understand the question about differentiation, think about what processes will directly initiate the prioritized expression of certain genes. Think from the receptor activation and then downstream.

Question 8

Exoskeleton in invertebrates

Answer 8

In contrast to vertebrates, invertebrate animals (eg, insects, crustaceans, worms) lack a vertebral column, but many possess an external skeleton known as an exoskeleton. This exoskeleton is a hard and rigid outer covering composed solely of nonliving material and serves to protect soft tissues underneath. Unlike the bones of vertebrates, exoskeletons cannot grow to accommodate organismal growth and must be shed and regenerated as the organism grows.

Question 9

Exocrine vs. Endocrine

Answer 9

The pancreas has paracrine, exocrine, and endocrine functions. Cells with paracrine function secrete substances that exert effects on neighboring cells whereas cells with exocrine function secrete substances (eg, saliva, sweat, enzymes) through a duct and onto an epithelial surface. In comparison, cells with endocrine function secrete hormones into the bloodstream to cause an effect in a different part of the body. The pancreas has endocrine, paracrine, and exocrine functions. The functional units of the endocrine pancreas are the islets of Langerhans, which are made up of alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete different hormones into the blood.

Question 10

GPCR activation

Answer 10

Glucagon acts on target cells by binding its G protein-coupled receptor on the cell membrane and inducing the adenylyl cyclase/cAMP second messenger cascade. The G protein “attached” to the transmembrane cell surface receptor is composed of three subunits: alpha, beta, and gamma. When inactive, the alpha subunit (Ga) is bound to GDP, which is then replaced with GTP on ligand-receptor binding. The GTP-bound Ga dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits and proceeds to activate adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP, a second messenger. cAMP then activates protein kinase A, which subsequently phosphorylates the proteins necessary to produce ligand-specific physiological effects (eg, glucagon: induction of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis).

Question 11

Leptin and Ghrelin

Answer 11

In an energy-rich state (eg, after a meal), leptin is released by white adipocytes to trigger appetite suppression via the hypothalamus. In contrast, in an energy-poor state, ghrelin is released by stomach gastric cells to trigger hunger and food-seeking behavior via the hypothalamus.

Question 12

Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 12

Alzheimer disease is a progressive neurodegenerative brain disease characterized by the presence of plaques composed largely of amyloid beta proteins and neurofibrillary tangles composed of tau proteins.

Question 13

Parkinson’s disease

Answer 13

Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disease in which neurons that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia are progressively lost.

Question 14

Huntington disease

Answer 14

Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant genetic neurodegenerative disease in which neuronal loss occurs in extensive regions of the brain including the basal ganglia.

Question 15

Multiple Sclerosis

Answer 15

Multiple sclerosis is a neurodegenerative disease in which immune cells attack the myelin sheaths surrounding axons in the CNS.

Question 16

Gray and White matter

Answer 16

The central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord, is composed of white matter and gray matter. Located in the center of the spinal cord, gray matter is composed of unmyelinated neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. In the periphery of the spinal cord, white matter is composed of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that allow for long-distance communication between neurons.

White matter consists of afferent and efferent axons:

1. Afferent (ascending) axonal tracts carry sensory information from the body to the brain in the dorsal and lateral columns.
2. Efferent (descending) axonal tracts carry motor commands from the brain to the body in the ventral and lateral columns.

Question 17

Brain Frequencies

Answer 17

Brain frequencies observed during most sleep stages are lower than brain frequencies observed during wakefulness.

Apoenzymes have the cofactors and holoenzymes do not

Question 18

Enzyme binding

Answer 18

Two competing theories exist regarding enzyme-substrate interaction, the lock and key theory and the induced fit model. The lock and key theory proposes that an enzyme’s active site is already in the proper structural conformation to allow a substrate to bind readily and form an active enzyme-substrate (ES) complex. This theory proposes that no conformational changes are necessary for catalysis to occur.

The induced fit model states that a conformational change is induced when the substrate binds the active site, resulting in the formation of a functional ES complex that is said to be in the induced form. Enzymes are highly specific for their substrates, and only the correct substrate can induce the required complementary change in active site conformation. Shifting an enzyme’s tertiary or quaternary structure to alter the shape of the active site requires energy. The passage states that NSP4 alters its tertiary structure upon substrate binding, so NSP4 most likely undergoes a conformational change that requires energy upon substrate binding.

Question 19

Solvation Layer

Answer 19

Unfolded proteins expose their hydrophobic residues to the aqueous environment, causing the surrounding water molecules to form solvation layers. By contrast, folded proteins tend to hide hydrophobic residues in their interior, away from the surrounding water. Hydrophilic residues remain on the surface of the protein, where they can interact with water without a solvation layer. Therefore, as a protein folds, the water surrounding it becomes more disordered. This is reflected by a positive ΔS value.

Question 20

Autoradiography and Western Blot

Answer 20

Autoradiography only detects molecules that contain radioactive atoms; lanes containing molecules with no radiolabel will appear empty. However, it is also possible that those lanes appear empty because they contain no molecule at all, with or without radiolabels. The western blot was performed with an anti-Dg antibody that detects all Dg molecules and confirms that they are present, even if they are not radiolabeled. The researchers can then be sure that the absence of bands in the autoradiogram is due to failure of the relevant enzyme to modify Dg and not due to a problem with isolating Dg itself. Note that unmodified Dg runs further on the gel because the absence of carbohydrates yields a smaller molecule.

Tests of this nature are called positive controls, and they help ensure that each step of the experimental procedure performs as expected. The first lane in each autoradiogram is also a positive control, showing that radiolabels are added when all enzymes are present.

Question 21

Stereocenters

Answer 21

Stereocenters are designated as having R or S configurations based on the arrangement of their substituents and the priority ranking of each. Carbohydrates with multiple stereocenters are given an L or D designation based on the configuration of the highest-numbered stereocenter. Almost all carbohydrates found in nature are in the D configuration.

Amino acids are L with S except cysteine

Question 22

MW of dNMPs

Answer 22

The molecular weight of dNMPs in decreasing order is deoxyguanosine (dGMP), deoxyadenosine (dATP), deoxythymidine (dTTP), and deoxycytidine (dCTP).

Question 23

Heat and Temperature

Answer 23

The heat released or consumed in a chemical process is called enthalpy, and the change in enthalpy is expressed by the term ΔH°. During chemical reactions, heat is exchanged with the environment as bonds are formed (heat released), broken (heat consumed), or both. If the heat released by bond formation exceeds the heat consumed by bond cleavage, the overall reaction is exothermic and has a negative value for ΔH°. Conversely, if more heat is consumed than produced, the reaction is endothermic with a positive ΔH°.

Table 1 shows that ΔH° for the overall reaction described is negative, making the process exothermic. Therefore, heat is released as the reaction proceeds, and the temperature will increase.

Question 24

Changing from Spontaneous to nonspontaneous

Answer 24

A reaction is spontaneous when ΔG° is negative whereas nonspontaneous reactions have a positive ΔG°. Therefore, the temperature at which ΔG° = 0 is the temperature at which the standard-state process switches from spontaneous to nonspontaneous.

Question 25

Aldol Condensation

Answer 25

An aldol condensation requires two carbonyl groups (from ketones and/or aldehydes), and these may be from separate molecules or within the same molecule. The reaction begins with deprotonation of an α-carbon (carbon adjacent to a carbonyl) to form an enolate. Next, the nucleophilic enolate attacks another carbonyl, forming a new carbon–carbon bond (the aldol product), in which the carbonyl adjacent to the nucleophile remains intact. Finally, –OH elimination takes place to give an α,β–unsaturated enone. A reaction between two separate compounds results in the addition of one compound to the other, whereas an intramolecular reaction within the same molecule (as in a diketone) results in a cyclization.

Compound 1 is a 1,4-diketone and forms a five-membered ring in an aldol condensation. Because the carbonyl in the α,β–unsaturated product is on carbon 5, the nucleophile must be either carbon 4 or 6 (α-carbons). It is energetically unfavorable for carbon 4 to be the nucleophile because a strained three-membered ring would form, whereas a favorable five-membered ring forms if carbon 6 is the nucleophile. Subsequent deprotonation of carbon 6 results in –OH elimination from carbon 2 and the formation of a double bond between carbons 2 and 6 to yield an α,β–unsaturated ketone.

Question 26

Magnetic Fields, Electric field, Capacitance, and Nuclear decay

Answer 26

Nuclear decay refers to the process by which the nuclear configuration or identity of an atom changes concurrent to the emission of radiation. The electromagnetic radiation associated with nuclear decay generates magnetic fields, but these fields oscillate and are not unidirectional.

A charged particle generates an electric field that exerts forces on other surrounding charged particles. However, charged particles do not intrinsically generate magnetic fields.

Capacitance is the ability of a device to store electric charges at small distances from one another, generating a voltage. Charges stored by capacitors are fixed in place, and therefore do not generate magnetic fields.

Magnetic fields are generated by electromagnetic radiation, permanent magnets, or the motion of charged particles. The direction of magnetic fields generated by moving charges can be determined using the right-hand rule.

B= (μI)/(2πr); The magnitude of the magnetic field (B) generated by electric current relates to the current (I), the distance from the axis of the wire (r), and the permeability constant (µ) of the medium

Question 27

Lorentz Force

Answer 27

Moving charged particles are accelerated in a magnetic field by the Lorentz force. The direction of the force is always perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. As a result, the particle’s trajectory is forced into a curved path. In the figure, the path of the proton is bent to the left in the presence of the external magnetic field. This means that the Lorentz force initially points to the left for positive charges in the magnetic field.

The direction of the Lorentz force for positive charges can be determined by using the right-hand rule. The direction of the force is in the opposite direction for negative charges. Therefore, the trajectory of an electron would curve in the opposite direction toward the right (Choices A and C). Because the mass and inertia of an electron is much lower than that of a proton, the electron will be more greatly affected by the magnetic field, and its path will curve more.

(Choice B) A particle with a negative charge and the mass of a proton would follow this path.

Educational objective:
The Lorentz force exerted on a moving charge in the presence of a magnetic field is perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. As a result, the charge’s trajectory is forced into a curved path, with negative charges and positive charges bent in opposite directions. Because an electron is less massive than a proton, an electron’s path would be more curved in the same magnetic field.

Question 28

Various Types of Organizations

Answer 28

Normative Organizations - People voluntarily unite based on shared values and or goals

Utilitarian Organization - Members are compensated for their involvement, typically through money

Coercive - Membership is not freely chosen (e.g. prisoners) and /or maintained (e.g., military service members must be discharged).

Question 29

Social Stratification Determinants

Answer 29

Social Class - determined by economic resources (e.g. income, property). Wealthy individuals are a t the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom.

Social Status - refers to one’s prestige (reputation). Certain careers (e.g, physician), personal characteristics (e.g. attractiveness), and achievements (e.g. winning an olympic gold medal) confer status that is not necessarily tied to wealth (although it can be).
Power - Ability to control others. Certain careers (politician) and accomplishments (a large social media following) increase one’s power.

Question 30

Social Role

Answer 30

Expected behavior in social situations

Question 31

Social Capital

Answer 31

The advantageous ties in one’s social network

Question 32

Social Network

Answer 32

Nonhierarchical webs of interaction between people

Question 33

Social identity

Answer 33

How ideas about oneself are shaped by group membership

Question 34

Social stratification

Answer 34

Hierarchical organization of individuals in society based on their social class (income), social status, and power

Question 35

Gestalt principles on UWORLD

Answer 35

CHECK IT!!

Question 36

Monocular Depth Cues

Answer 36

1. Interposition: Closer objects will overlap in front of objects that are further away (Choice A).
2. Light and shadow: Highlights and shadows help to give objects the appearance of depth (Choice C).
3. Texture gradient: Closer objects show more fine detail than objects that are further away (Choice D).
4. Relative size: Further objects appear smaller than closer objects of the same size.
5. Relative height: Further objects are perceived at higher distances within a field.
6. Linear perspective: Distances between parallel lines appear narrower as they become further away.

Question 37

Binocular Depth Cues

Answer 37

Binocular depth cues result in depth perception (stereopsis) based on information from both eyes. Retinal disparity allows for integration of slightly different images from each retina. Convergence refers to the angular positioning of the eyes as they focus on objects.

Question 38

Troxler Effect of Sensory Adaptation

Answer 38

Binocular depth cues result in depth perception (stereopsis) based on information from both eyes. Retinal disparity allows for integration of slightly different images from each retina. Convergence refers to the angular positioning of the eyes as they focus on objects.

Question 39

Parkinson’s Disease

Answer 39

Parkinson disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that involves the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia, resulting in motor abnormalities (resting tremor, muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, shuffling gait, lack of coordination) and symptoms of depression.

Question 40

Meta-Analysis

Answer 40

Table 1 presents data from a meta-analysis, a systematic, quantitative review of multiple studies that have attempted to answer a similar question using comparable methodology and outcome measures. By statistically analyzing the aggregate data, a meta-analysis provides a broader perspective than any single experiment.

Table 1 shows outcomes of DBS for specific brain regions. For each brain region, only studies using the same outcome criteria were pooled in the analysis. Superscripts indicate the depression scales and remission criteria used for each brain target. For example, this meta-analysis included three studies using the nucleus accumbens as a DBS target, all of which measured depression symptoms with a 28-item HDRS.

Different measures (eg, different HDRS and MADRS scales) and different remission criteria (eg, scores below 8 or 10) were used for different brain targets. Therefore, it is not possible to make comparisons between brain targets in terms of statistical significance or efficacy.

A meta-analysis statistically analyzes data combined from multiple studies with a common experimental goal. To combine study results for a meta-analysis, studies must use parallel methodology and outcome measures. Averages between groups cannot be compared if they are not based on the same outcome measures.

Question 41

Why must a person wither lean forward or slide their feet under the chair in order to stand up?

Answer 41

As the person is attempting to stand, the only support comes from the feet on the ground. The person is in equilibrium only when the center of mass is directly above their feet. Otherwise, if the person did not lean forward or slide the feet under the chair, the person would fall backward due to the large torque created by the combination of the weight of the body (applied at the person’s center of mass) and the distance along the horizontal between the center of mass and the support point.

Question 42

Absorption

Answer 42

Near UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum has longer wavelengths and hence lower energy.

Question 43

Venturi Effect

Answer 43

In the diagram showing the venturi effect, the oxygen pressure is the sum of the oxygen static pressure P and the oxygen flow pressure (1/2v^2). In the area of the mask openings, Pair = P + (1/2v^2), thus Pair > P. Air enters the mask because the static pressure of the air is larger than the static pressure of the oxygen in flow.

Question 44

Dispersion

Answer 44

These colors are often observed as light passes through a triangular prism. Upon passage through the prism, the white light is separated into its component colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion.

In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency. Media having this common property may be termed dispersive media. Sometimes the term chromatic dispersion is used for specificity.

Question 45

Lewis Acid-Base Interaction

Answer 45

Metal Cation and an electron pair donor

Question 46

A caveat of Ionization Energy

Answer 46

Metals have lower ionization energies than non-metals as long as the ionization event involves a valence electron. I know other things

Question 47

Inflatable Cuff

Answer 47

The systolic pressure is determined from the first sound of blood flow that can be heard once the pressure exerted by the inflatable cuff falls below the pressure in the artery. The blood pressure reading was 130/85, which indicates that blood flow started again when the pressure was 130 mmHg. Therefore, blood flow was not heard when the pressure was greater than 130 mmHg

Question 48

Photon

Answer 48

The photon is a type of elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The photon has zero rest mass and always moves at the speed of light within a vacuum.

Question 49

Blood from the small intestine

Answer 49

Blood from the small intestine is transported first to the liver, which regulates nutrient distribution and removes toxins from the blood.

Question 50

Baby boomers

Answer 50

Demographers define the baby boom generation as those individuals born between approximately 1946 and 1964. The baby boom generation is the main sociohistorical factor that explains the projection in the passage about the increasing share of the population over 65 years of age.

Question 51

Acquisition vs. Shaping

Answer 51

Acquisition: explains the initial phase of acquiring a behavior and applies to BOTH classical and operant conditioning

Shaping: a procedure of continuous reinforcement to help the subject acquire a behavior that ONLY applies to operant conditioning

Question 52

Structural Functionalism

Answer 52

Functionalism is more of a macroscopic process/ The sociological paradigm of functionalism makes a distinction between manifest, or intended, and latent, or unintended, functions of social activities. From the functionalist perspective, almost all social actions have both manifest functions and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall stability. Realize when interactions are involving symbolic interactionism and conflict theory