BETA FINAL MISCELLANEOUS Flashcards
Transposons
Class 1 - Copy and paste
Class 2 - Cut and paste
Viral Capsids
- Spherical and geometric
- Protein subunits
- Forms spontaneously around genetic material
- Viral enzymes NOT ribosomes form it
Integrase
Integrates viral dsDNA into the host genome NOT required for (-)RNA. Confirm the DNA type
Glucocorticoids vs Mineralocorticoids
Former - Steroid
Latter - Peptide and polar
Boyle’s and Charles’ Law
Boyle’s - P vs 1/v
Charles’ - V vs T
Freezing point depression and boiling point elevation
Formula: change in temperature = kim (check what i, k, and m mean)
Group 1 vs. Group 2
Form insoluble salts
Separate enantiomers
React with a chiral agent and I think it forms a diastereomer (confirm this)
Grignard
Reacts only those that contain carbonyl functionalities and NOT STRAIGHT CHAINS
Hydrogen bond donor
Needs a negative atom and a hydrogen atom
Transition vs. Intermediate states
Transition - Cannot be obtained via ordinary chemical means
Intermediate - Can be obtained via ordinary chemical means
Products of carbocations
- Elimination - Acid + Heat
2. Substitution - Acid only
Elimination notes
Favored by heat and a weak base will slow an elimination without heat
Stronger base
Most highly substituted
Ionotropic vs. metabotrophic
Ionotropic - Conductance
Metabotrophic - Second messenger
Refractory period notes
Measured in seconds NOT MINUTES
Photoreceptor disks
- Specialized cellular structure involved in phototransduction cascade
- Contains rhodopsin (rods) and photopsin (cones) which both contain retinal
- Retinal - Responsible for absorbing light and causing a chain of events that eventually allows the photoreceptor to activate.
Fovea notes
- Fovea is visual acuity (form, color, spatial resolution)
- Cones in fovea have slow recovery period
- Cones have increased spatial resolution and decreased temporal resolution. Temporal is detection of light and changes in light (probably rods)
Alpha carbon
Carbon beside the carbonyl carbon
Acetal and Ketal
Protect aldehydes and ketones
Epoxides
Form something and peroxyacid and then a mixture of diastereomers
Sodium hydride
Strong base and will abstract a H+ (proton) and leave a carbanion
PCl4, PCl3, PCl5
PCL4 is wrong because it is unstable
SoCl2
Converts carboxylic acids to acyl halides
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol
Esters
Water and Acid (carboxylic acid)
Same acid
Entropy change
Heat/Temperature (Q/T)
Semantic knowledge
Knowledge about the environment
Conceptual knowledge
Static facts within a certain domain of knowledge
Strategic knowledge
Set of rules or steps that explain a formula for analysis
Embodied cognition
Body, brain, and environment
Information processing
Passive
Information processing
Passive
Stages of Change Assessment
- Action - Plan put into practice
- Preparation - Individual begins to plan what it would take to make change happen
- Precontemplation - Individual is unaware of any issues with their life or behavior and has no plans to change
- Contemplation - Individual is aware that there is problem and actively thinking about ways to solve the problem
Fear vs. Anxiety
Fear - response to known threat; current and tangible threat
Anxiet - Response to an unknown threat
Divergent problem solving
Creativity and originality to solve problems. Convergent will be opposite of this
Inductive
Thinking about specific situation nad applying that information to broad principles
Deductive
Thinking and using broad principles and applying information to specific situations
Selective exposure
Avoidance of something to reduce dissonance
Post-decisional dissonance
- Part of selective exposure. It follows an impulsive purchase that is difficult to return
Minimal justification
Part of selective exposure
- Impulsive action that was performed without a real reason
Residual schizophrenia
Lack of delusions and hallucinations
Catatonic schizophrenia
- Withdrawal
- Muteness
- Hyperactivity
- Hold uncomfortable and bizarre positions for bizarre positions for an extended period of time or sit still
Paranoid sch
- Grandiosity
- Persecution
- Suspicion
Disorganized
- Incoherent speech and thought
Ethanol consumption
Reduces liver’s ability to produce glucose
Type 1 diabetes
- No production of insulin
2. Rapid, loss of weight (muscle mass)
Power
- Function of significance level
- Magnitude of change
- Sample size
Cellulose
beta(1->4)
Absorption
- Duodenum - Proteins and carbs absorption
2, Ileum - fats and fat-soluble absorption
Erythropoietin and Cortisol
- Cortisol - Increased glucose levels
2. Erythropoietin - Increased RBC
Hemoglobin saturation
Blood oxygen levels determined
T-lymphocyte maturation
Thymus
Leukopoiesis
Increased WBC
Coagulation
Vitamin K is a precursor for factors linked with the coagulation cascade, its absorption is linked to the intestinal microbiota; blood changes from liquid to gel
Consequential
Something happens as a result of something else
Correlation
2 events are linked with each other but do not necessarily imply causation
-ve and +ve slope
Measuring increase is by closer to the y-axis
Maximal Torque due to gravity
Lmg
Torque for fized angular displacement
mgL*sin(theta)
Accelaration due to gravity effect
Affects frequency and period
Torque notes
- Torque increases with increased tilt angle
2. Angle of torque does not contribute to the amplitude of the signal in successive cycles
Lipogenesis; Lipolysis; Ketogenesis; Ketolysis
Lipogenesis - metabolic formation of fats
Lipolysis - metabolic breakdown of fats (oxidation)
Ketogenesis - Breakdown of fats to ketone bodies
Ketogenolysis - Breakdown of ketone bodies
Notes on X-linked and autosomal dominant
DO NOT skip generation
Fatty acid oxidation and gluconeogenesis; Glucagon
- Fatty acid oxidation FUELS gluconeogenesis; an anabolic process, which maintains blood glucose levels in a fast
- Pyruvate carboxylase - gluconeogenesis; Glucose-6-phosphatase - Gluconeogenesis; Fatty acid synthase (anabolic)
- Glucagon - Glycogen - Glucose, liver; Gluconeogensis - AAs; stimulate FAa release from adipose tissues
Ideal Gas Laws Notes
- The volume is larger than would be expected by gas laws becasue we need more space to not bump into each other and if you want to make P constantm V has to be a bit bigger
- Pressure real is small because of inward attractive force
Power of Lens
- Diopters
2. 1/m or m-1
Dispersion
- variation of wave speed that produces the separation of white light into a full spectrum.
- It would not improve vision, and a pinhole will not induce this effect
Diffraction
Does not negate effects of myopia
Pinhole
Allows light to come in almost entirely parallel to the lens, which would pass straight through and avoid refractive errors seen in myopia.
Superheating (Distillation)
- Heat (a liquid) under pressure above its boiling point without vaporization
- Heat (a vapor) above its temperature of saturation.
- Heat to a very high temperature.
Bumping
Bumping is a phenomenon in chemistry where homogenous liquids boiled in a test tube or other container will superheat and, upon nucleation, rapid boiling will expel the liquid from the container.
Air bubbles and boiling chips in Distillation
They break the surface tension of the liquid being heated and prevent superheating and bumping.
Rate limiting step of Gluconeogenesis
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase converts fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, using one water molecule and releasing one phosphate (in glycolysis, phosphofructokinase 1 converts F6P and ATP to F1,6BP and ADP). This is also the rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis.
Rate limiting step of Glycolysis
Regulated only by excess glucose-6-phosphate. If G6P accumulates in the cell, there is feedback inhibition of hexokinase till the G6P is consumed. The phosphofructokinase step is rate-limiting step of glycolysis. High AMP/ADP levels are activators of this enzyme, while high ATP levels are inhibitory (energy charge).
Rate-Limiting Step
In chemical kinetics, the overall rate of a reaction is often approximately determined by the slowest step, known as the rate-determining step (RDS) or rate-limiting step.
PFK-1 vs PFK-2
PFK-1 catalyzes the important “committed” step of glycolysis, the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate and ATP to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP. … The key difference between the regulation of PFK in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is that in eukaryotes PFK is activated by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.
Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surface pressure. The normal boiling point is measured at 1 atm pressure. The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increasing temperature. Hence, the boiling point of a liquid decreases as the pressure on the surface of the liquid is decreased. If a leak develops in the apparatus, the surface pressure will increase, as will the boiling points of both liquids.
Why do transition metals make colored solutions or precipitates
The solution containing nickel(II) ions is green colored. The color arises because nickel(II) ion has partially filled d orbitals and the electrons in the lower energy d orbitals absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.
First ionization energy and subsequent ones
The first ionization energy is lowest when the removal of the electron results in a complete shell or subshell, and the highest when the removal of the electron disrupts a complete shell or subshell. Another thing is to realize the effect of nuclear charge too after taking this first thing into consideration. Krypton, a noble gas, has a complete outer shell of electrons and therefore has an extremely high ionization energy. Potassium, with only electron in its outermost shell, has a low ionization energy.
Ionic bond note
An ionic bond is most likely to form between elements of very high and very low electronegativity. In practice this generally means elements at the far right and far left of the periodic table respectively.
Alcohols generally require acid catalysis in order to undergo substitution by nucleophiles. Why?
The question asks the examinee to remember that the substitution reaction in question serves to replace the hydroxyl group and that hydroxide ion is one of the worst leaving groups in substitution reactions. Under acidic conditions, the hydroxyl group is protonated such that the leaving group is now water, a superior leaving group rather than hydroxide ion.
Mutarotation
Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of the change in the equilibrium between two anomers, when the corresponding stereocenters interconvert. Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and β anomeric forms interconvert.
Dipole Moment
ole moments occur when there is a separation of charge. They can occur between two ions in an ionic bond or between atoms in a covalent bond; dipole moments arise from differences in electronegativity. The larger the difference in electronegativity, the larger the dipole moment. The distance between the charge separation is also a deciding factor into the size of the dipole moment. The dipole moment is a measure of the polarity of the molecule. A dipolar ion like a zwitterion ion is such that, polarity in neutral molecules results from an uneven distribution of electron density, which can arise from separation of unlike charges. This occurs in zwitterions and ylides (what are these?). In addition, molecules that contain strongly electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents are highly polar and possess correspondingly high dipole moments.
Ylide
A ylide or ylid is a neutral dipolar molecule containing a formally negatively charged atom directly attached to a heteroatom with a formal positive charge, and in which both atoms have full octets of electrons. Note the difference between the ylide and zwitterion. Ylide is direct attachment and zwitterion is not.
Ksp
The amount of a substance that will dissolve in water in described by the Ksp. The Ksp for a substance, AaBb, equals [A]a[B]b. If the amount of the compound present is in excess of the Ksp, then a precipitate would form to maintain the Ksp.
Epidermal Layers
Corneum - Randomly/continuously slough off; 15-20 layers dead keratinocytes.
Lucidum - Clear because keratinocytes are dead; lost nucleus and organelles
Granulosum - Keratinocytes granules (“keratin-handling proteins”); release lamellar bodies; form lipid layer
Spinosum - Desmosome joined keratinocytes filled with water; shriveled, spiny joined by desmosome lose water; Langerhaus immune cells
Basale - Keratinocytes separated; formed by cytokinesis; toughness of skin; melanocytes; rapid cell division; skin color
Dermal Layers
Papillary layers - Thin connective tissues (actin and collagen); blood vessels; nerve endings; erector muscles
Reticular Dermis - Thick connective tissues; hair follicle; sweat & exocrine glands
Mechanoreceptors
- Meissner’s Corpuscle - light touch; constantly changing stimulus; PAPILLARY DERMIS
- Paccinian (lamellar) corpuscle - Deep touch; constantly changing stimulus; HYPODERMIS
- Merkel’s Disk - Sustained light touch; STRATUM BASALE IN BETWEEN PAPILLARY BASALE
- Ruffinian’s corpuscle - Sustained deep touch; RETICULAR DERMIS
- Hair follicle receptor - light touch on hairy skin; requires constantly changing stimulus due to collagen; RETICULAR DERMIS
Hindsight bias
Hindsight bias is a term used in psychology to explain the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
Shadowing
Repeating digits presented to a specific ear is an example of SHADOWING or something along those lines.
Language production and Comprehension
Occurs in the left hemisphere
Socialization and Agents of Socialization
Socialization is a lifelong process during which we learn about social expectations and how to interact with other people. Nearly all of the behavior that we consider to be ‘human nature’ is actually learned through socialization.
Sensory Stimulus
Sensory stimulus is more referring to the type of information being received by your receptors which elicits a response… ie: light, heat, touch, sound, etc.
Distal and Proximal stimulus
Distal stimulus: object which provides information for the proximal stimulus
Proximal stimulus: stimulus registered by the sensory receptors
Context Effects
Context effects: not relevant to a person’s judgment and decision making process, but can still have a biasing impact on those processes. It could be from the environment or a source.
Partial Report Technique
Partial report technique: reporting 3/4 letters from any row. sensory/iconic memory
Word Association Testing
Word association testing: In a word association test, the researcher presents a series of words to individual respondents. For each word, participants are instructed to respond with the first word (i.e., associate) that comes to mind. Freud believed that such responses provided clues to peoples’ personalities (free association).
Operational Span Testing
Operational span testing: STM testing how much you can keep somethign in memory.
Feature detectors
Feature detectors are specific neurons in the brain that fire in response to particular visual features, such as lines, edges, angles and movement. This info is then passed along to other neurons that begin to assimilate these distinct features into more complex. objects, and so on.
