WW1 Flashcards
Why did Italy not have to join Austria in Aug 1914 when war broke out?
- Austria had not consulted w/ Italy before declaring war on Serbia so treaty obligations did not apply
- Giolitti announced Italy would remain neutral
What was the PM’s belief about entering the war and what were the alternatives?
- Salandra wanted to join the war, as if Germany and Austro-Hungary won, they would not forgive Italy who did not help them
- However if Britain and France won and Italy chose not to help them, they would not be open to discussing Italy’s wishes in the Mediterranean
- The war also allowed for Salandra to introduce more repressive legislation to control the political problems in Italy
Reasons for supporting neutrality: (3)
- Allying w/ GER + A-H disliked by many –> betraying Italy’s patriotic ambitions, trade would be wrecked as GBR supplied coal, cultural sympathies for FRA
- Better economically and militarily –> economy too weak, economic gains possible even w/out intervention, army busy in Libya (not large enough/equipped)
- RCC did not want war w/ Catholic Austria + most who supported political parties did not care for territorial gains
Initially what was the support for intervention like and what were their reasons for supporting this?
- Small but vocal nationalist minority
- Wanted Trieste + Trentino in Austria
What did Salandra and his foreign minister Sidney Sonnino begin doing, how did this end and what was the initial reaction?
- They began secret negotiations w/ GBR + FRA, AUS + GER
- Triple Entente offered many of the irredente lands (eg. South Tyrol, Dalmatia, Istria) if Italy sided with them. Alliance was not willing to give Trieste/Trentino in Austria
- Italy signed Treaty of London on 26 Apr 1915 in full secrecy, extending Italian mainland by around 9,000 square miles
- PSI + most Catholics firmly against intervention (‘neither support nor sabotage’), as they feared war more than they wanted irredentism
- Mussolini was expelled from PSI for promoting intervention
Popular support was moving towards intervention in May 1915. Why was this?
- Nationalist movement
- Press –> Nationalists had lot of influence on this esp allied propaganda, Mussolini gathered crowd of 30,000 in Milan supporting intervention + Gabriele D’Annunzio, a poet who gave pro-war charismatic speeches
- Police + military did not break up pro-intervention demonstrations when compared to intervention protests
Why did Salandra resign and why was he reinstated in May 1915?
- Giolitti + 300 deputies expressed opposition to the decision. Those backing neutrality wanted Giolitti as PM again
- Salandra resigned and King asked Giolitti to take over, preferably without dishonouring the Treaty of London otherwise he would abdicate and both sides would hate on Italy
- Giolitti declined the offer to become PM again, as he felt he could not support the treaty and risk overthrowing the King
- Salandra was reinstated on 16 May and granted emergency powers on 20 May (PSI voted against this and were the only far left-wing party in Europe to not support their country’s intervention!)
When did Italy formally declare war on Austria?
25 May 1915
What was the fighting between Austria and Italy like?
- Conditions were horrific eg. Ice + snow of alpine terrains, cholera and frostbite
- In 1915, 62000 Italians died during 4 failed offensives against the Austrians
What were the problems in the war? (7)
- Unprepared for war –> best soldiers in Libya + shortage of arms
- Mobilisation was disorganised and gave Austria time to retreat defensively
- Cadorna pursued strategy of massed infantry attacks on entrenched positions eg. 62,000 men killed and 170,000 injured in first 2 advances
- Bitterness between peasant infantry soldiers and exempted industrial workers as 95% of casualties were in the infantry
- Low rations and treated poorly -> 3000 calories a day by 1916
- Paid poorly –> half a lira per day for infantrymen
- No newspapers or entertainment for soldiers –> forbidden to enter cinemas or bars even on leave
What was conscription like and how did the soldiers feel about fighting?
- Nearly 5 mil men conscripted w/ maj peasants + agricultural workers
- Southern peasants were over represented and maj could not understand the dialects of the Northerns in charge
- The soldiers did not understand why they were dying over frozen wastelands w/ 290,000 were court-martialled due to desertion
What was the Italian supreme commander’s (who was he?) solution for the lack of discipline?
- Military tribunals passed 4000 death sentences on soldiers for desertion + indiscipline (way more than any other Western army)
- Luigi Cadorna made war camps intolerable to deter soldiers from surrendering
- 600,000 soldiers had to survive on 1000 calories a day here
- Around 100,000 died of hunger-related illnesses (5x the number from FRA + GBR)
What was the Strafexpedition, when was it launched and what effect did it have on Italy?
- A major offensive to open a path to attack Verona and Bologna in 1916
- Severe impact on public morale and army
- Salandra was forced to resign and replaced by Paolo Bosselli w/ no improvement in military
When was the Battle of Caporetto, and what happened?
- 24 Oct 1917
- Austrian forces attacked Italian frontline + poor leadership and morale meant a humiliating and chaotic retreat (>160km) took place
- There was looting, large loss of military arms + 200000 soldiers lost contact w/ regiments
- One senator, Leopoldo Franchetti, was so overwhelmed by the defeat that he committed suicide
- 10,000 Italians killed, 30,000 wounded, 300,000 taken prisoner + 400,000 soldiers vanished
What consequences did the defeat at Caporetto have?
- Lost most of the Veneto
- Reignited the divisions of intervention from 1914
- Nationalists calling for rev and removal of politicians like Giolitti who did not support the war
- Boselli resigned and was replaced by Vittorio Orlando
What changes were made after PM change in 1917?
- Cadorna removed and replaced by General Diaz, who was much more cautious ( casualty rates fell from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918)
- Improved rations
- 25 days leave (compared to previous 15)
- 1918 –> Trench newspapers introduced
- Arditi (small grps of commandos that infiltrated + carried out attacks) established
- Promises of land reforms for peasant conscripts
- Dec 1917 –> ONC set up to look after welfare of soldiers and family
Compare numbers of Italy’s industries w/ Austria before the war
- Italy was behind Austria in all war important economic areas
- Before the war, steel production was less than a mil compared to Austria’s 2.6 mil tonnes
- Before the war, every 2 Italian machine guns, Austria had 12
Give figures on Italy’s industries after the war
- Created aeronautical industry –> 6,500 planes in 1918
- Fiat was Europe’s leading truck + lorry manufacturer –> 25,000 vehicles in 1918 comapred to 4,500 in 1914 and workforce increased from 6,000 to 30,000
- 20,000 machine guns + 7,000 heavy artillery, greater than the number British could manufacture
How was the Italian industry able to produce so much?
- Alfredo Dallolio, the under-secretariat of arms + munitions
- Organised recruitment of women (1/4 of munition factory workers) + peasants (1/3 of workers in war economy)
- Ensured key men for war production were exempt from conscription
- Strikes made illegal
- Hours of work increased
- Military tribunals for unsatisfactory behaviour
- Financed industrial expansion through advance payments, cheap loans + contracts (state would pay whatever to buy produce)
How much debt did rapid economic growth rack up and why was this the case?
- All based on gov investment, which involved taking foreign loans and printing more money, causing inflation
- Now 23.3 bil lire in debt compared to 2.9 before the war
- Exponential rise in national debt by fivefold between Jun 1914 and Jun 1919
- Owed more than 15 bil lire to GBR + 8.5 bil to USA
What other consequences did rapid economic growth have?
- Some war-based sectors growing at a disproportionate rate compared to other industries
- Economy still short of natural resources
- Low exports
- Weak consumer market
- Divide between north and south accentuated as north’s economy grew by over 20% between 1911 and 1921, as most war production was based there
- By 1917, bread + pasta rationed and sugar consumption falling sharply
- Worker anger fuelled as industrialists made vast profits when wages dropped by 25% w/ long hours (75 hr working week was normal for Fiat by Jul 1916)
What happened in Aug 1917 that pushed change?
- 50 workers killed in Turin protesting against bread shortages + the war
- Shocked politicians took steps to increase food supplies and more pro-war propaganda
In what way did wartime inflation have a positive impact on WW1?
- Allowed peasants to pay off debts quickly
- Reduced rent payments in real terms
How did socialists involve themselves in the war effort?
- Local councils that organised rations + welfare
- Socialist cooperatives that prevented profiteering
- TUs to settle labour disputes (employers tried to dodge this by employing only those who were not part of one)
After Mussolini was sacked, how did Avanti! present the war?
- An imperialist clash that good socialists opposed
What was set up in April 1918, by who and where did they meet?
Sonnino allowed a Congress of Oppressed Nationalities to meet in Rome
What pact was signed in this congress, what did it say and how did gov react to this?
- Pact of Rome
- Italy was interested in independent Yugoslavia
- Could still seek other concessions in the Adriatic, even though Italy had to give up some territory in relation to Yugoslavia
- Gov accepted it but did not sign
What countries were peace treaties signed with and when?
- Sep 1919 –> Austria
- 1920 –> Hungary
Yugoslavia (Treaty of
Rapallo)
What colonies did Italy receive?
- Only Jarabub + Jubaland
- Minor frontier concessions in Libya + Eritrea
What showed that Italy’s prospects in the war were improving?
- Shift in military tactics
- Austria-Hungarian Empire near collapse by Oct 1918
What did Orlando encourage Diaz to do and what was the result of this?
- He encouraged him to attack for an Italian victory
- On 24 Oct 1918, Italy launched an offensive across the Piave entering Vittorio Veneto + splitting Austrian army into 2
- Took 500,000 prisoners of war
- Austria signed an armistice on 4 Nov
Which treaty signed when ceded South Tyrol and Trentino?
Treaty of St Germain in 1919
How was the victory viewed by the nationalists and Mussolini?
- Nationalists promoted it as the glory of Italy through patriotism + unity
- Mussolini would link success of fascism to the ideals of Battle of Vittorio Veneto
What had Italy lost due to the war?
- 650,000 casualties
- Distorted economy
- More divided Italy
