Rise of Fascism 1919-1922 Flashcards
When was Fasci di Combattimento formed, who did it consist of and how many people attended the first inaugural meeting?
- 23 Mar 1919
- Representatives of 20 ex-servicemen leagues
- 100 people
How did Mussolini begin his political life and why did he move towards the right-wing?
- Began as strong socialist
- Experiences in trenches allowed him to see power of war for unity
- This was described as ‘trincerocrazia’, which is the rule of trenches where men were linked by their war consciousness
What was Mussolini’s position before his entrance into fascist politics?
- Conscript in army
- Lost job as full-time organiser job for socialist organisation in 1909 for anti-clerical articles + preaching violent rev
- Editor of socialist newspaper Avanti! in 1912 (popularity of paper x4 during this period)
- Expelled from Socialist party for rejecting neutrality
When was the Fasci’s political programme announced, what did it include and what was the issue with it?
- Jun 1919
- Confiscation of church property (anti-clerical)
- End to monarchy
- Republicanism
- Extended suffrage to women
- Anti-imperialism
- Nationalisation of arms industry
- 8 hr working day
- Abolition of senate, titles of nobility, compulsory military service
- Universal education
Issue was that it did not identify from other left-wing parties, especially PSI
How many attended the original meeting, how many members did they have by June and who was it predominately made up of?
- 50 members
- 3000 by June
- Made up of arditi, who were crack troop commandos formed after defeat at Caporetto
What had the arditi worn during the war and how had this developed within the party?
- Black uniform that was diff to other soldiers
- Emblem of black flag w/ white skull gripper dagger in teeth
- became identity of Fascist Party and were known as ‘blackshirts’
How were the socialists and communists striking perceived as by the fasci, how did they answer this and who specifically did they target?
- No different from the enemy they had fought in WW1
- Formed themselves into small military units called squadrismo (members known as squaristi)
- Used extreme violence
- Targeted key PSI members + socialist councils
As a result, what did Mussolini encourage the formation of and what were the features of these groups?
- Armed squads
- Organised under a ras (commanding officer)
- Blackshirt uniform
- Revolver
- Manganello (club)
What were squads like towards their ras and how were they funded?
- Extremely loyal
- At local level, instead of centralised
Give one event where the squadrismo attacked socialists and what happened during this
- 15 Apr 1919 –> squadrismo of 200 to 300 attacked socialist demonstration in Milan and burnt down offices of Avanti!
- 3 socialists + 1 fasci killed
- None of fasci arrested, nor were actions condemned by gov
What were the squadristi’s tactics, how many were killed and what was the public reaction to the violence?
- Beat them
- Forced them to drink castor oil
- Murder
- First 5 months of 1921 –> 200 people killed + 1000 wounded in fascist violence
- These soldiers have saved Italy from Austria and from the socialists
How was support for the PSI growing?
- More radical position due to Russian rev and war (wanted rev)
- Refused to work w/ liberals
- Supported strikes + factory occupations
How did Orlando try to ease public anger in 1918 + 1919?
- Dec 1918 –> New law for universal male suffrage
- Increased suffrage by 11 mil
- 1919 –> System changed to PR to give public vote more influence
What is proportional representation?
- Number of elected representatives is proportional to percentage of votes received
- Difficult for any one party to win majority resulting in trouble when passing legislation
When did Nitti come to power?
Jun 1919
What were the results of Nov 1919 election and how did the public feel about this?
- Greatest share of 32.4% won by PSI, w/ 156 deputies (3x number in 1913 elections)
- Next biggest was PPI w/ 20.5% (101 seats)
- Old liberals still remained in power until 1922 because of PR (91 seats)
- Angered public as nothing seemed to change despite growing support for other parties
How had the fasci performed in 1919 election and why did Mussolini choose to continue w/ his political career?
- Very poorly
- Less than 5000 votes + no seats
- No action taken in Milan showed gov was prepared to tolerate squadristi violence to prevent a socialist rev
How many active supporters did the fascists have by the end of 1919?
No more than 4000
How did the fasci attempt to gain votes from the people and how did others help them do this?
- Squads used to attack socialist campaigns and intimidate voters
- Ransacked union leaders’ HQs
- Engaged in strike breaking
- Organised tax strikes in socialist-controlled towns
- Police lent vehicles + army gave weapons
- Judiciary were lenient towards fascists involved in attacks against socialists
In early 1920s, what did workers have to join, why and what were their opinions of it?
- Fascist syndicates
- To gain employment after socialist + Catholic TUs broken up by violence
- Some disliked violence used by TUs against uncooperative striking workers
- Some liked policies offered eg. fair wages
How did the Fasci’s political programme from 1919 change in May 1920?
New Programme
- Much more right-wing, pro-business, militaristic
- Removal of refs to nationalisation, female suffrage, anti-clericalism, removal of monarchy, compulsory military service
- Goal of complete unification w/ irredente
- Limited citizen freedoms
- Taxes proportional to income + no forcible confiscations
- Education system providing future soldiers w/ physical and moral training
When did Nitti’s gov collapse and why?
- 9 Jun 1920
- Worsening economy
- Occupation of Fiume
- Ongoing strikes
Who replaced Nitti, but why was he despised by nationalist Italians?
- Giolitti replaced him
- His anti-interventionist policy in WW1
What happened in November 1920 and what was the general reaction?
- Giolitti opened direct negotiations w/ Yugoslavia
- Treaty of Rapallo –> Fiume was to be an independent city
- Generally welcomed as many were tired of d’Annunzio’s antics in Fiume and at least it wasn’t Yugoslav territory
What was Giolitti’s solution to Bienno Russo, how did he do this and was it successful?
- Seek compromise for the workers
- Pressured banks to withdraw support for companies who refused to negotiate w/ striking workers
- No violence against strikers
- Encouraged businesses to allow workers shares in their companies + representatives in management boards
- Successful in short-term as by 25 Sep 1920, strikes had ended
Which groups of people were considerably angry at the way Giolitti handled the strikes, why and how was this beneficial for PNF ?
- Middle classes
- Industrialists
- Nationalists
- Landowners
- Catholics
- Giolitti had given in to the workers’ demands
- Stark contrast to the success of the fascist squadristi
How was the political strength of the left-wing weakened and how was this helpful for fascist propaganda?
- Jan 1921 –> more radical members of PSI split to form PCI w/ support from Russia (similar to Communist Party)
- Even though PCI pushed rev more than PSI, they were too small to provide a political threat
- Appeared rev was close now that there was an official communist party
Why was trasformismo much harder in post-war Italy?
- Ideological splits were more deep-rooted so parties could not be bought off like before
- Increase in parties made it more difficult to organise a working coalition
In 1921 election, how did Giolitti try to absorb the fascists and how did this backfire on him?
- Offered members running for parliament a place in his national bloc on ballot paper
- After being voted into parliament, Mussolini announced that he would vote w/ opposition
After realising it was impossible to create a stable gov, what did Giolitti do and what happened after this?
- He resigned
- Replaced by Ivanoe Bonomi then Luigi Facta (both weak leaders)
Why did Bonomi’s feeble attempt to rein the squads in fail?
He did it in the form of authorisation rather than instruction, which made anti-fascist action seem optional
How was the success of the use of squadristi violence reflected in the results of May 1921 elections and how was this important?
- PSI received highest number of votes (123 deputies)
- PPI: 107 deputies
- Communists: 15 deputies
- Electoral breakthrough: Fascists won 7% of vote + 35 deputies
- Less than Mussolini expected
- Mussolini was given authority as a MP
- Benefited from immunity to prosecution eg. police charge for ‘intent to overthrow gov by violence’ dropped
From 1921, what was Mussolini’s changed tactic to gain wider support?
- Speeches tended to emphasise what he opposed rather than supported
- Vague speeches
What was the dualistic approach of overthrowing parliament and how was this complicated even further?
- Mussolini could manoeuvre himself into PM through parliamentary deals
- Seize power through force of squadrismo
- Had to be a balance between more conservative and radical members of PNF
What change did Mussolini make and why did he do this?
- Jul 1921 –> End to squadristi violence
- Fear of communist rev was fading so ppl may question why violence is still continuing
What was signed in Aug 1921 and what did Mussolini say was his reason, as well as his actual reason?
- Pact of Pacification w/ socialist TU + PSI members
- Said it was necessary to bring social and political peace
- Actually hoped liberals and Catholics would come to a deal to stop him working w/ socialists
How did Mussolini hope the Pact and call to end of squadristi violence would force the ras to follow his political direction and what did it actually do?
- Hoped it would assert his dominance as leader
- 3 most powerful ras bosses (Dino Grandi, Italo Balbo, Roberto Farinacci) condemned Pact + called meetings between squadristi for end to it
Italo Balbo:
- Republican who hated socialists
- Interventionist
- Joined PNF when it was founded
- Disagreed w/ Hitler alliance, wanted it w/ Britain
How did Mussolini respond to this and how was his position within the party ultimately strengthened?
- 18 Aug 1921 –> Resigned as leader of fascists
- Ras lacked unity and were unable to formulate policy w/out Mussolini
- Showed the importance of his leadership
After his resignation, what did Grandi and Balbo do and what did it confirm about the squadristi?
- Asked d’Annunzio to lead them but he refused
- No-one else could take the position so it was obvious Mussolini would have to lead
- PNF programme confirmed squadristi was now under control of party, not ras
Who were the Quadrumvirs and how were they portrayed after 1926?
- Michele Bianchi
- Emilio de Bono
- Cesare Maria de Vecchi
- Italo Balbo
- Rarely depicted w/ Mussolini after gradual removal from propaganda
What did Mussolini offer Grandi and what did this mean? What did he also offer Balbo and de Vecchi?
- Prominent role on new fascist journal
- Confirmed support for Mussolini
- Balbo made colonial administrator in Libya
- de Vecchi made colonial administrator in Somalia
What did the offerings of these positions mean for Mussolini?
- Stationed in Africa
- Unable to play leading role in political events
What was the final concession Mussolini had to make but why was this not an issue?
- Drop Pact of Pacifiation
- By Oct 1921, he had come to believe the best means to gain power was through squadristi violence
- He now tried to promote it, hoping gov could be blackmailed into giving him power
When did fascism become a formal political party, what was Mussolini’s aim in doing this and how did he attempt to expand?
- Oct 1921 –> PNF formed
- Centralise control over movement, as there were currently numerous different fasci
- Founded local branches
- Tried to recruit more ‘respectable members’ to increase appeal of fascism
- Collection of membership dues
How did Mussolini attempt to win Catholic support in Nov 1921?
Declared his opposition to divorce, which was supporter by PPI
What groups of people supported fascism and for what reasons?
- Urban middle class (esp white-collar workers and small business owners) –> Feared socialist rev and increased taxes proposed by PSI
- Middle and upper classes of landowners in countryside + wealthier farmers and peasants –> stop land reform
- Richer landowners + Italian industrialists –> break union power and angered by high levels of taxation
- Some workers + peasant farmers –> disliked socialists + violence used against labourers who wanted to continue working in strikes
- Young Italians –> tired of corruption + wanted new, dynamic alternative to liberalism
In 1921, what percentage of movement were students?
10%
Initially, which groups of ppl did fascists gain most of their support from?
- Former servicemen
- Urban middle class
What had been formed in Dec 1921 to produce a loyal generation of fascists?
Dec 1921 –> Fascist Youth Front formed for boys between 14 and 17
In 1921 and 1922, how many members were in PNF and what changes were made to squads?
- Around 200,000 in 1921, 300,000 in 1922
- Formally organised into ‘cohorts’ under command of consuls
- Consuls organised under zone commander
From spring 1922, fascist violence expanded. What helped them in doing this and what did they do?
- Helped by inaction of liberal gov
- Blackshirts attacked towns where socialist councils were in control
- Towns in northern Italy fell to fascists
Why did PPI lose its authority in 1922 and why did they withdraw their support for coalition gov?
- Newly elected Pope Pius XI ended support for party
- Withdrew support due to gov’s failure to control fascist violence
When did Bonomi’s gov collapse as a result and who took over?
- Feb 1922
- Luigi Facta (weak + complacent PM)
After this how did fascist violence change and what happened?
- Violence surged
- Italo Balbo led squads through Rimini to Bertinoro on E coast of Italy
- Destroyed all homes and offices where communists + socialists held meetings
- By Sep –> Took over areas around Rome and were prepared to take over capital
Give one example of gov failing to work together to form an anti-Fascist alliance and why
Jul 1922 –> Moderate socialists + PPI agreed to join this alliance w/ liberals, however Giolitti refused due to personal animosities
How many successive govs collapsed between 1919 and 1922?
5
What was one crucial error by the left-wing parties in Jul 1922 and how did this play into the hands of fascists?
- 31 Jul 1922 –> PSI and PCI backed call for 24 hr general strike across Italy
- Strike faded out as workers were wearing of further strike action and so did not take part
- Fascists kept some public services running to show they were saving nation from communism
Between May and Oct 1922, what action did the squads take?
- Attacked Genoa, Milan, Livorno, Ancona + Bari
- Murdered socialist leaders + supporters
- Burning offices
- Forcing left-wing councils to resign
By 1922, how many members did PNF have and how many workers had joined fascist TUs?
- 300,000 members
- Nearly half a mil
What aim was dropped by Mussolini in Sep 1922?
Republicanism
What did Mussolini do despite the attacks, what did he promise, what crucial thing did he encourage and why was this important?
- Favoured dual policy through Sep + Oct 1922
- Promised pursuit of moderate conservative policy, backing of monarchy, reduced taxes + balanced budget if fascists were accepted in coalition gov
- Encouraged attacks on Bolzano + Trent by squads
- Crucial as these towns were not held by conservative liberals, so Mussolini was increasing pressure by challenging gov itself
Which key liberal figures now wanted a coalition with fascism but what was the issue with this?
- Nitti, Giolitti, Orlando
- They just wanted the alliance to help them become PM
- More concerned with stopping their rivals becoming PM than avoiding fascist rev
How did Mussolini encourage the division between liberal parliamentarians (Salandra, Nitti, Orlando, Giolitti) and what was the impact on Giolitti specifically because of this?
- Separately promised each of them that they would be PM in a fascist coalition gov
- Giolitti refused to travel to Rome to help Facta’s gov unless King made him PM
Who called a general strike and was this successful?
- Socialists called it
- Poorly supported
What were the ras pushing for but why did Mussolini still want to pursue constitutional appointment as PM?
- Violent takeover of gov
- He would have a stronger position as leader of Italy + his party
- Concerned about military response as squads would not be able to cope if King ordered to crush the uprising
What happened on 16 Oct?
Mussolini meets w/ other fascist leaders who agree to plan takeover of gov
What happened on 24 Oct?
- Fascist Congress in Naples to squadristi that he will either be appointed PM or will seize power
- 40,000 Blackshirts chanting ‘A Roma’
After this, what is Mussolini continuing to do and what else is going on in the background?
- Hold talks w/ liberal politicians about formation of coalition gov
- Fascist squads moving on Rome (began in Milan)
What happened on night of 27 Oct?
- Squadristi occupied gov offices, police stations + telephone exchanges in parts of N Italy
- Gather at 3 locations 20 miles from Rome
- Poorly armed + depleted in numbers
- Facta requests the king to proclaim martial law + use army to crush fascist uprising
What happened on 28 Oct?
- 2 am –> King agrees w/ martial law and declaration of state of emergency, army began to assume control in Milan, order drawn up for Mussolini’s arrest
- 9am –> King refused to sign decree but declares state of emergency
- Facta resigned
Why did the King (Victor Emmanuel III) make the decision he did?
- Lacked confidence in Facta to control the situation
- Encouraged to not sign decree by Salandra and his supporters (so he could become PM)
- Feared military would not obey his orders and side w/ fascists (although army chiefs had promised their loyalty)
- Deterred by idea of bloodshed across Italy
- Mussolini cleverly hinted that King’s cousin, Duke of Aosta (fascist supporter who was stronger, taller + admired by Italian military) could replace him if fascists took over
How was Mussolini helped by the disagreements between liberal politicians?
- King turned to Salandra, who asked Mussolini to be part of his gov
- At this point, Mussolini was in a position powerful enough to demand Salandra to be made PM, rather than a mere post in his gov
- Salandra did not have Mussolini’s support and so turned down the offer
- Due to rivalry between liberals, Giolitti, Salandra + Orlando recommended Mussolini be made PM
What happened on 29 Oct?
Mussolini received message from King offering him PM in coalition gov
What happened on 30 and 31 Oct?
30 Oct
- Mussolini arrived in Rome from Milan
- Around 50,000 fascists made their way to Rome, led by Quadrumvirs
31 Oct
- Sworn in as PM, Minister of the Interior + Foreign minister
- Victory parade allowed
Why did the March on Rome actually occur and how did this affect the perception of Mussolini’s appointment in the future?
- Mussolini decided a much stronger myth was needed than the political mess that had led to his appointment
- The March would give the impression that he had acquired power through strength of squads
- Speeches and anniversary celebrations referred to the March as an ‘armed insurrection’
- State-sponsored history books later wrote about supposed deaths of 3000 fascist martyrs
How many political opponents were killed between 1920-22?
2000
