Aggressive Foreign Policy 1935-40 Flashcards
What were Mussolini’s reason for wanting to invade Abyssinia?
- Planning for this war helped the economy –> war related contracts commissioned in 1932 helped fuel Italian industry
- Linked to autarky –> Abyssinia would provide raw materials, areas for agricultural expansion, greater export market
- Easing pressure for land reform in south + propaganda effect that gov is providing them w/ better life –> hoped southern peasants would emigrate for farming land
- Avenge Adowa humiliation in 1896
- Fulfilling militaristic aspect of fascism
- Add to prestige of dictatorship
- Show Hitler power of fascist rule and dissuade him from pursuing Anschluss
What was significant about Abyssinia in comparison to other countries?
Last African country free of colonial rule
What incident in Dec 1934 brought Abyssinia and Italy closer to war?
- 1930 –> Mussolini had established fort at Wal Wal
- Abyssinian emperor Haile Selassie wanted removal of fort
- Military confrontation at Wal Wal oasis, where 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed
When did Mussolini launch the invasion, how large was the army and how did they approach it?
- 3 Oct 1935
- 400,000
- 6 Oct –> Seized Adowa and border towns
Why did Mussolini replace the head of the invading army, with who and why?
- Progress was slow under Emilio De Bono, due to the need to build roads as army moved
- Replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio
How did Badoglio go about the invasion, what techniques were used and what was it similar to?
Brutal war:
- Mass aerial bombings
- Murder of prisoners of war
- Illegal use of poisonous chemicals eg. mustard gas
- Similar to Libya tactics
When was the Italian army victorious, entering what city?
- 5 May 1936
- Entered capital city, Addis Ababa
How many Italians listened to the public radio broadcast on 9 May, announcing the gain of the empire?
20 mil
What were the immediate consequences of the war like and what were they?
- Positive
- League of Nations placed rather limited sanctions eg. banning weapon sales and putting sanctions on rubber and metal imports
Why did League of Nations did not want to take severe action against ITA?
Did not want to push them towards an alliance w/ GER
What could have the League of Nations done that would have had severe consequences for Mussolini?
- Could have banned oil being exported to Italy
- Could have closed off Suez Canal
How did the sanctions serve as propaganda and give one example of its success
- Italy would not back down to League of Nations trying to limit its power
Example: - 18 Dec 1935 –> Royal fam launched Gold for the Patria campaign
- Queen Elena melted wedding ring to help campaign against sanctions
- Thousands of women followed
- Received steel rings in return, symbolising marriage to nation
How did the Church bless the invasion however how were they being hypocritical?
- Blessed it as a civilising mission
- Abyssinians were Christian
In the long-term what were the consequences like and what were they?
- Negative
- 2/3 of country were still to be occupied + costs to supply 250,000 to fight ongoing guerrilla war was high
- Only 130,000 Italians settled
- Hope that colony would provide raw materials and oil never materialised
- Export markets never developed –> by 1939, only 2% of trade went to Abyssinia
- Oct 1936 –> Lira devalued by 40%
- Budget deficit rose from 2.5 to 16 bil lire –> growing trade shift to GER
- Viewed by other powers as a danger to peace due to brutal war –> stronger relation w/ GER as a result
- Policy would become more radical as aggression proved successful to Mussolini
- Hitler and others see League of Nations as weak
When did Hitler march German troops into Rhineland, what did the League of Nations do about this violation of the Tretay of Versailles and what did it show Mussolini?
- Mar 1936
- No real attempts to punish GER
- Showed League of Nations, GBR + FRA were weak
Despite not seeking a diplomatic break w/ GBR + FRA, why did Mussolini move towards GER?
- Believed GBR + FRA govs may draw concessions on Africa and Mediterranean to draw him back towards them
Who was General Franco of Spain fighting, who supported him and when did ITA forces join them?
- Leading right-wing forces (supported by GER + ITA) against Spanish Republican gov (supported by FRA + USSR)
- Joined in Jul 1936
What were Mussolini’s hopes if General Franco was victorious?
- Undermine FRA
- Gain strategic ally in Mediterranean
- Gain naval bases in Balearic Islands
- Help spread authoritarian nationalist anti socialist regimes
- Foreign policy concessions from FRA
- Add to cult of Il Duce
How many soldiers, artillery + tanks, pilots, fighter planes and bombers did Mussolini send into Spain?
- 50,000 soldiers
- Thousands of artillery + tanks
- 1,400 pilots
- 400 fighter planes
- 200 bombers
When was General Franco victorious and how helpful was the military support from Hitler and Mussolini?
- Mar 1939
- Negative
- Italian air forces helped a lot, whereas GBR + FRA declared neutrality and USSR only offered volunteer fighters
Overall were the consequences of the Spanish a civil War positive or negative and what were they?
- Italian casualties quite high –> 3266 soldiers killed + 11000 wounded
- Severe disruption in Italian economy –> 14 bil lire special taxes from pop to pay, foreign currency reserved halved, lira devalued, economic dependence on GER
- No territorial ambitions achieved –> Franco determined not to let SPA become satellite state to ITA, naval concessions did not happen, focus in SPA weakness ITA’s aims in Abyssinia
- Unpopularity w/ Italian people –> Growing concern about move towards GER + didn’t understand why they had joined Civil War
- Weaker military –> weaker in 1939 than 1936
- Relations w/ GBR damaged due to closeness w/ GER + SPA
Give one event that shows the how weak the army has become at the point:
Mar 1937 –> Defeated by republicans against army made up of antifascist ITA volunteers in Battle of Guadalajara
What had GBR + FRA done during the invasion of Abyssinia and what negative consequences did this have?
- Secret agreement formed (Hoare-Laval Pact)
- Agreed to allocate 2/3 of Abyssinia to Mussolin in return for maintenance of Stresa Front
Consequences: - Plan dropped once British public was outraged after finding out
- Hoare replaced by Anthony Eden (more negative towards Mussolini)
- British public and political opinion of Mussolini deteriorated
What other events worsened relationships between GBR + ITA?
- During war –> ITA submarines pretending to be SPA attacked and sank neutral shipping in Mediterranean which angered GBR gov
- Early summer 1938 –> ITA bombing raid on SPA ports sunk 11 GBR ships
Despite the deterioration of relations what did GBR still doing and give examples of this:
- Still trying to come to an arrangement w/ ITA
- Jan 1937 –> Signed ‘Gentleman’s Agreement’, confirming status quo in Mediterranean + limiting ITA’s intervention in Spanish Civil War
- Apr 1938 –> GBR recognised ITA’s rule over Abyssinia
What effect did these agreements have on relations?
- Little effect
- Mussolini ignored the ‘Gentleman’s Agreement’
What had Mussolini initiated discussions on, when and what was it followed by?
- Oct 1936 –> Rome-Berlin Axis
- Nov –> Announcement of German-Italian Axis (informal agreement of cooperation)
- Freedom of action in east Europe and the Baltic in return for support to gain Mediterranean
In what way was the alliance beneficial for both Hitler and Mussolini?
- 1936 onwards –> Italian exports became more and more reliant on GER markets
What happened in Sep 1937?
- Mussolini visited GER
- 800,000 Germans came into Berlin
- Mussolini proclaimed value of fascist ITA + Nazi GER to be same
- Impressed by Hitler
What happened on 6 Nov 1937?
- ITA became part of Anti-Comintern Pact (hatred of communism) w/ GER + JAP
- Claimed to establish mutual support in case of aggression from USSR
- In reality, pact was aimed as much at GBR as USSR
When did ITA leave the League of Nations and what was Mussolini’s reason for this?
- Dec 1937
- Organisation was against Italy and its revolution
What did these two actions confirm?
- ITA’s position alongside GER as a revisionist power for Treaty of Versailles
- End of Stresa Front
However, at this point, why had Mussolini still not signed a firm alliance w/ GER?
Still in discussion w/ GBR in hopes of Mediterranean concessions
What event demonstrated the weakness of ITA’s diplomatic position in Europe and how?
- Mar 1938 –> Hitler moved against Austria + crossed border to begin Anschluss
- Mussolini made no attempt to stop them
- Can be argued ITA was becoming satellite state to GER
What did the Nazis propose that Mussolini rejected and why?
- Full-scale military alliance
- Still negotiating path between GBR + GER
After May 1938, what was Hitler focusing on, why and as a result, what was Mussolini doing?
- Invasion into Czechoslovakia for Sudetenland that had been taken from then in Treaty of Versailles
- Mussolini discussed (w/ foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano) the possibility of remaining neutral in a possible war
How did Ciano feel about entry into the war and the alliance w/ GER?
Opposed it
What is the Sudetenland?
Areas of Czechoslovakia that were ‘ethnically’ German
How did Mussolini try to use the quest for Sudetenland as an opportunity?
- Wanted to make himself seem like an international statesman
- Recommended conference in Munich between GBR, FRA, ITA + GER
What happened at the Munich Conference of Sep 1938?
- Apparently: Mussolini played important role to broker deal giving up the Sudetenland to GER, avoiding war (celebrated by his people)
- In reality: Subservient to Hitler
When was the Munich agreement signed, returning Sudetenland to GER?
30 Sep 1938
When and why did Mussolini authorise an invasion of Albania?
- Mar 1939
- To emphasise ITA’s military strength to GER + others
- King Zog had been encouraging investment from other countries eg. Japan to become less dependent on ITA
- Ciano + other leaders thought Albania could be exploited economically
- Planned to settle 2 mil Italians in Albania
- King Zog rejected Mussolini’s ultimatum so he had to invade
When was the invasion launched and what were the consequences?
- 25 Mar
- Easily defeated small Albanian force
Consequences: - King Zog fled to London
- Fascist regime set up under Shefqet Verlaci
- GBR + FRA guaranteed military assistance to Greece and Turkey
Despite the victory, what showed the weaknesses of the ITA army?
- Unorganised troops
- Using weapons they had never trained for
- Poor coordination
Between 1938 and 39, what percentage of the massive increase in the state deficit did military’s spending account for and what impact did this have on the public?
- 80%
- Impact on middle-class incomes and savings to pay for the expenditure
What did the quest for autarky mean for the public?
Many consumer products became more expensive as these would have been cheaper to purchase from international markets
The living standards of workers in which sectors declined as a result of what battle and what else was exacerbated?
- Agricultural, industrial and civil sectors
- Battle of the Grain
- Worsened diet
What was signed in Feb 1939 and how was this worrying?
- New commercial treaty between GER and ITA
- ITA economy becoming very reliant on GER
What did this treaty instigate, what was this and why was it unpopular?
- Policy transferring Italian workers to GER, a number that would reach half mil by 1945
Unpopular because: - Treated poorly by Germans, who were condescending due to their superior Aryan race
- Contradicted Mussolini’s frequent speeches where he said ‘Italian workers should remain in Italy’ + ‘ensure they are treated w/ respect and dignity’
What other things fuelled the unpopularity?
- Fear of Anschluss
- Growing relationship between GER + ITA –> possibility of war alongside them
- 1938 anti-Semitic policy
- ‘Reform of the customs’
- Possibility of war
Why was the Cult of Il Duce becoming harder to sustain?
Mussolini was 55 and had been in power for 17 years by 1939
What pact was signed on 22 May 1939 showing a full alliance between GER and ITA?
Pact of Steel
Who was drafting of the pact left to and what was the implication of this?
- Germans
- Insertion of Article 3, which went against diplomatic convention that nearly all alliances operated only in defensive purposes
What was Article 3?
ITA would support GER if it went to war
What other aspects were part of the pact?
- Military and economic cooperation
- Permanent political consultation between fascists and Nazis
Who persuaded initially concerned Ciano to sign the pact, what did Ciano tell him and what was this person’s response?
- Joachim von Ribbentrop (GER foreign minister)
- Ciano: ITA will not be ready for war until 1943
- Ribbentrop: No intention of waging war before this date
What happened on 11 Aug 1939 and what was Mussolini’s reaction to this?
- Meeting in Salzburg
- Ribbentrop and Hitler told Ciano GER was planning to attack POL
- Shocked
What other agreement shocked Mussolini, why and what was this?
- 23 Aug –> Nazi Soviet Pact
- Non-aggression pact w/ USSR + GER incorporating secret protocols concerning division of eastern Europe into USSR + GER spheres of influence
- Believed it directly contravened Anti-Comintern Pact ITA had signed w/ GER
Who said they should remain neutral, why and why was this still a problem?
- Ciano and other military advisers
- Avoid entangling ITA in costly war when GER invaded POL
- Fascism was constantly associated w/ militarism
What did Mussolini do on 26 Aug and what was Hitler’s reaction to this on the following day?
- Presented massive wish list of supplies Italy would ‘need’ before it could wage war
- 6 mil tonnes of coal, 2 mil of steel, 150 anti-aircraft batteries w/ ammunition (total of 170 mil of goods)
- 27 Aug –> Released Mussolini from his obligations to Pact of Steel, instead asking for his psychological support and if possible, engagement in military measures to tie down GBR + FRA
When did GBR + FRA declare war on GER?
3 Sep
Who advised Mussolini not to enter the war?
- All of Grand Fascist Council
- General Franco
- Oliveira Salazar (Portuguese dictator)
- Vatican
- Ciano
- King Victor Emmanuel
- President Roosevelt, who sent his envoy Sumner Welles, to convince him to stay out
What phrase did Mussolini use rather than neutrality when he announced this?
Non-belligerence
In Mar 1940, what was Mussolini considering and what was the issue with this?
- Whether to side w/ GBR + FRA
- Switching sides would bring a GER attack they would find hard to defend
What event made Mussolini’s decision making more limited?
German advance of May 1940 that conquered Holland and Belgium, moving onto FRA
At this point, in May, what was Mussolini’s main reason for joining the war?
- How would GER treat an ally who had betrayed them twice?
- If ITA joined the war at a good time to play a decisive part, but not be caught in serious fighting, they could be part of GER’s victory
When did Mussolini meet his chief of staff, what did he tell him and what did he do on the day?
- 26 May –> Met Marshall Badoglio
- Said GER would be victorious by Sep + ITA only required few thousand dead to be able to attend peace conference
- Told the King
When did Mussolini announce Italy’s entry into the war?
10 Jun 1940
