The Fascist State 1925 - 40 Flashcards
What organisation was set up in 1925 as a replacement for something (what was this?) ?
- 1925 –> OND set up
- Replaced socialist organisations for welfare + worker recreation that had been shut down
What did each OND section typically have?
- Clubhouse
- Recreation ground
What did OND offer workers?
- Variety of social + sporting opportunities eg. libraries (8625 by 1939) + football teams
- Plays, concerts + art exhibitions
- Dopolavaro clubhouses for local communities (by mid 1930s, nearly every town had one)
- Food and clothing for poorer people
- Providing radio sets
- Rail ticket discounts
- Welfare for workers
- Provided social insurance
- Holidays subsidised by fascists for virtually no cost eg. mountain retreat
Compare OND membership in 1926 and 1935
- 1926 –> 300,000
- 1935 –> 2.4 mil
How many members did OND have by 1939 and what percentage of industrial, private and state sector workers were members?
- 4 mil
- 80% of state + private sector workers
- 40% of industrial
What was different about OND when compared to other fascist organisations?
There was no particular promotion of fascist ideologies
What did the PNF complain about in relation to OND and how did Mussolini respond to this?
- Complained that it made no attempt to provide fascist education to workers
- Mussolini said the achievement of OND was that it workers were meeting in places + participating in social activities linked to PNF and that this was more important
Who was the OND originally set up to be responsible to, but who did this later become part of and when?
- Originally, under Ministry of National Economy
- From 1927 –> Part of PNF
When were youth organisations set up and under which organisation?
- 1926
- Under ONB
What were the 3 female youth organisations?
- Daughters of the She Wolf (6 to 8 yrs)
- Little Italians (8 to 12 yrs)
- Young Italian Women (13 to 18 yrs)
How was the ONB restructured and when did this happen?
- 1934
- Split into 3 categories: Sons of the She Wolf (6 to 8 yrs) , Balilla (8 to 14 yrs) + Avanguardisti (15 to 18)
What did members of ONB have to do?
- Swear oath of loyalty
- Learn Balilla creed
- Wear uniform
How was uniform different between the Balilla and Avanguardisti?
- Balilla –> black shirt, blue scarf, black tasselled cap, grey shorts
- Avanguardisti –> Similar uniform to Blackshirts, military rifles, bayonets, gathered together to sing Giovinezza (fascist hymn)
What was the GUF’s main goal, how long did this run until and what happened to those who won?
- To run the Littorali (national student games involving cultural + debate competitions on fascist themes)
- Earmarked for future success in PNF + other organisations
- From 1934 to 1940
What was there an increased emphasis on and why?
- Sport and exercise –> need for biologically fit Italian race
- Religious instruction –> due to Lateran Pacts
How was the focus of physical education implemented into youth programme for girls and why was this an aim?
- Gymnastics
- Ensure they would be able to bear healthy children
What happened in youth organisations?
- Constantly exposed to fascist propaganda
- Physical exercise
- Attendance at summer camp
- Militaristic activities
- Traditionally feminine activities for girls
Were there any other youth organisations?
All were banned except those provided by RCC
What were the advantages of being a member in a youth organisation beyond the age of 11?
- Access to jobs + special scholarships
- Free sports facilities
- Enjoyable social occasions
- Holidays at seaside for urban children
What were the disadvantages of being a non-member beyond age of 11?
- Difficult to enrol in further education
- Barred employment in civil service
- Seen as a reason to suspect families of being anti-fascist
What was the aim of the youth programme for boys and activities did they do at specific ages for this?
- Producing young fascist soldiers
- 8 to 14 yrs –> Trained in moral + spiritual defence of country
- From 14 –> Special gymnastic + sporting programmes as physical prep for military life
- At 18 –> All able-bodied males under military training
- ONB: Sport + military training w/ activities eg. marching, wrestling
How successful were youth organisations in the rural south and why was this the case (give stats) ?
- Not very successful
- Most did not study past 11 esp girls
- Nature of agricultural work made it difficult to participate
- Boys enjoyed their activities much more than the girls (1937 survey by PNF in Rome showed girls were much more interested in sporting activities provided to boys)
When was membership in youth organisations beyond 11 yrs old made compulsory?
1939
After the Church’s movement was banned and ONB membership made compulsory, what did membership numbers increase to?
- More than 8.5 mil
What had been created in 1929, what was its role, what did it control and what did this mean?
- Ministry of National Education
- Oversee scholarly education + physical training of Italy’s youth
- All youth organisations
- Compulsory for all boys + girls in elementary (6 to 11 yrs)
Who was the first fascist Minister of Education, what was his plan from 1923, was this popular and what happened in the end?
- Giovanni Gentile
- Improve literacy + increase educational standards
- Unpopular
- From 1929 –> Deprived of power by those who saw education as an opportunity for indoctrination
What changes were made in schools?
- Teacher must refer to Mussolini’s heroic qualities
- Portrait of Mussolini in every classroom alongside Kings
- Posters emphasising fascist achievements
- School day begins with a fascist slogan
- Taught to read w/ books using fascist cartoons + quotes from Mussolini’s speeches
- From 1928 –> 1 authorised gov textbook, libro unico, w/ all subjects esp achievements of Italian history + literature
- History textbooks lacking patriotic content replaced (1926 –> 101/317 textbooks banned as a result)
- Encouraged to make links between Caesar + Mussolini
What was uni like?
- Less focus on formal fascist education/military training in uni
- Had to join University Fascist Youth
What were the benefits of joining the University Fascist Youth?
- Use of sports facilities
- Half price admissions for entertainment
- Partial exemption from military service
- Enhanced career prospects
How did the stats for number of university students change between 1921 and 1942?
- 1921 –> 54,000
- 1942 –> 165,000
- More diverse range of backgrounds
What was the biggest problem faced by fascists in relation to unis, however what shows that this was manageable?
- Professors were harder to dismiss + harder to threaten into obedience + could not be tricked that it was just a formality
- Did not want to join PNF/take oath of loyalty
- Only 11/1250 refused
What did teachers have to do after 1931, how were some tricked into doing this and what did teachers have to have done to be employed?
- After 1931 –> Take oath of loyalty to regime
- Said it was just a formality
- Must have received teachers’ diploma after 1923 (when Fascists consolidated power)
Which people were removed from their jobs, when and as a result what became compulsory?
- 1920s –> Antifascist teachers
- Teachers who did not agree w/ changes
- 1933 –> Teachers must belong to PNF
Give examples of sporting events used for propaganda purposes
- 1932 –> 12 Olympic gold medals won
- 1934 + 1938 football World Cup winners
- Between 1933 + 1935 –> Primo Carnera, an Italian, was world boxing champion
For what two reasons was culture used for in the fascist regime?
- Enhance authority
- Increase external prestige of the Fascist state
The definition of Fascist style was unclear. What was Mussolini’s, Farinacci’s and Bottai’s take on this?
- Mussolini: Looked to Novecento movement, which emphasised Roman styles, rejected recent past + embraced cultural nationalism
- Farinacci: Favoured 18th - 19th century traditions
- Bottai: No state art
What were the two main artistic/architectural tendencies that existed under the fascist regime and which did fascists tend to favour?
- Neo-classical
- Modernist
- Fascists favoured neo-classical
What did art frequently portray?
- Sturdy rural/industrial workers
- Productive women
- Virile youths
How did the government try to control art?
- Promoted competitions at regional, national + international level
- Artists had to join Syndicate of Professionals and Artists
- Had to profess loyalty to regime
In order to increase familiarity with art and celebrate achievements, how many exhibitions were organised in a yr?
Around 50
What was built in Rome in regards to cinema and when? How many students did it train and to what extent was it fascist?
- 1935 –> Experimental Centre for Cinematography
- 100 students a yr
- Not used for fascist purposes until WW1, however threats were sufficient
How much creative freedom did film directors have and how many overtly fascist movies were produced?
- Fair degree as long as fascism was not criticised and it was not political
- Very few
What movies were played instead and why was it the case that there were such few fascist movies (give stats)?
- Hollywood/Italian movies as light entertainment (87% of box office takings were from showings of Hollywood produced movies)
- Regime needed support of cultural industries so avoided possible political issues in cinema
What was created in 1934, whose control was it under and what was its role?
- General Directorate of Cinema
- Control of Ministry of Press/Popular Culture
- Responsible for regulating cinema + bringing it in line w/ fascist ideology
At what point did the fascist regime take over Cinecitta (Hollywood + centre of Italian film industry), what was the reason for this, what were these movies like and give examples of some?
- 1934 –> Director General in Culture Ministry appointed, who restricted Hollywood imports + provided subsidies and training
- 1938 –> several fascist films now being made
- Mainly escapist glamour rather than fascist propaganda
- Siege of the Alcazar (1940)
What was Cincetta, who helped fund this and when?
- Series of major film studios
- IRI
-1937
What preceded the movie, who was it produced by (when was this created) and what did it portray?
- Compulsory newsreels + documentaries
- LUCE, regime’s film agency (created in 1924)
- Current events glorifying regime
What was another important form of mass media and why was this?
- Radio
- Did not require literacy
- Could be installed in remotest parts of country
- State-controlled so great opportunity for fascist propaganda
How else did fascists use radio to spread fascist ideas and where and to who did they do this?
Set up community listening meetings especially in rural areas + to illiterate
When were the first radio stations set up in Italy and how many sets were there by 1932 + 1938?
- 1924- 25
- 1932 –> 300,000 radio sets
- 1938 –> More than a mil
What special agency was set up and who was it led by?
- ERR, special rural radio agency
- PNF secretary
How did radio change during WW2?
- Expanded by Mussolini
- More than 2 mil radio sets installed in schools, marketplaces etc
Give one example of fascist propaganda in radio
- ‘Chronicle of the Regime’ programme by Forges Davanzati, member of Grand Council of Fascism
- Interviewed well-known members of gov + PNF
- 2 hrs a day of official broadcasts, which increased in 1930s
- Mussolini’s speeches broadcast live + played through loudspeakers
What did prefects now have the ability to do in terms of propaganda and as a result, which left-wing newspapers were closed?
- Could confiscate whole editions of newspaper + suspend publication + replace editors + shut them down completely
- Avanti!, Partito Poplare + L’Unita
What did journalists have to join (according to which law?) and whose instructions did they have to follow when publishing?
- Fascist union, according to Press Law of Dec 1925
- Mussolini’s press officer, who had specific instructions about what should be published about Duce
What were journalists told not to print stories on?
- Crime
- Suicides
- Traffic accidents
In 1925, how did the authorities try to solve the issue of satirical magazines?
Tried to buy them and appoint fascist editors
How was this problem ended after 1925 (give examples of one that survived + two that did not)?
- Independent newspapers closed + their editors arrested
- 1925 –> Luigi Albertini, editor of Corriere della Sera, dismissed
- Sep 1925 –> La Stampa, anti-fascist newspaper, banned
- La Critica (critical newspaper) survived even after repressive press laws
What percentage of entire newspaper sales in Italy were fascist? Compare the circulation of Mussolini’s newspaper to others?
- Only 10%
- Popolo d’Italia: 100,000
- Corrier della Sera: 600,000
- Osservatore (Vatican newspaper): 250,000
Who was the only press agency run by?
A fascist
How were independent newspapers allowed to exist?
- Increased subsidies for printing positive stories about Mussolini
- Fascist intervention was rarely needed as most editors carried out censorship themselves
What did fascist propaganda focus on and what was one key symbol in doing this?
- Creating a shared patriotic feeling
- Rome was a key symbol
What did the cult of Ancient Rome do and how did they show this?
- Celebrated greatness of Ancient Rome
- Celebrated fact that Italians should be proud to be heirs of greatest empire
- Medieval buildings destroyed to display Rome’s classical ruins
What large event was held in 1937, where, how many people visited and how many items were there? What was the relevance of this to Mussolini’s regime?
- Commemoration of 2000th anniversary of Augustus Caesar w/ 30,000 items
- Rome
- Over 1 mil
- Mussolini said to be heir of Augustus, as he was rebuilding Italy in the same way
How else did Mussolini relate himself to Ancient Rome?
- Often referred to words like ‘consul’ and ‘Imperial Rome’
- Manipulated archaeology to show closer connections to Ancient Rome
- Took fascist symbol from ‘fasces’ carried by lictors of Ancient Rome
What was formed to organise propaganda, when and what was this renamed later on?
- 1935 –> Ministry of the Press
- 1937 –> Ministry of Popular Culture
What problems did the Ministry of Popular Culture have?
- Not very sophisticated (sarcastic name of ‘Minculpop’)
- Had difficulties exploiting modern mediums
- Lack of mass media in south hindered national integration
What should all art in Italy do?
Serve the goal of fascist state
What two changes were made in 1926 (give an example) ?
- National Institute of Fascist Culture created
- Artists + intellectuals organised into associations eg. Fascist syndicate of artists led by Antonio Maraini
What did the National Institute of Fascist Culture do?
Organised cultural events, free concerts + publications encouraging mass participation in fascist cultural propaganda
Who funded the Italian film industry and what was constructed in late 1930s?
- PNF
- Film City (state of the art film production complex)
What was held in 1932 to celebrate a decade of fascist rule, what did artists have to do for this and how many people visited it?
- Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution
- Artists commissioned to produce artwork representing this achievement
- 4 mil
How was architecture an intrinsic part of fascist culture?
New buildings were modelled on a neo-classical Roman style connecting Ancient Rome + fascist regime
What types of buildings were constructed to show stability + power of fascist regime?
Vast and imposing buildings
What was the largest building project during Mussolini’s reign, what was this, what was it designed for, when did construction begin and was it fully completed?
- EUR
- Extension to Rome
- Designed to combine housing apartments, monuments + gov buildings
- Palazzo della Civilta Italiana completed, but some weren’t due to WW2
Give an example of one building linking Ancient Rome + Fascist Italy
- Foro Mussolini
- Sports venue built between 1928 + 1938
What was drama like during Mussolini’s rule?
It was a minority pursuit
What were musicians required to join and what were they encouraged to develop?
- Fascist Union of Musicians
- Relevant fascist syndicate
- Develop ‘cultural autarky’ by rejecting foreign influences
What was the aim of the cult of Il Duce and what famous fascist slogan represented this?
- Portray Mussolini as an able leader who was leading Italy to greatness
- ’ Mussolini is always right’
How many pictures of Il Duce were circulated around Italy, in how many different poses?
- 30 mil in 2500 poses
In what different ways was Mussolini described as in propaganda?
- Superb swimmer + aviator
- Respected statesman
- Attractive (shirtless in some photos)
- Traditional family man
- Supreme patriot
- Literary figure
- Without friends + human emotions
What was the problem with the Cult of Il Duce?
- Focused on worship of one leader rather than a sustainable ideology even after Mussolini died
- As Mussolini aged, it was harder to match the image of young, dynamic leader
- Through 1930s, Mussolini seemed to believe in the cult himself, leading to more radical policies in future
What punishment was reintroduced and for whom did this apply?
- Death penalty
- Anyone who tried to assassinate King/ threatened state security
Who was Confino usually used against and why was this an impactful punishment?
- Financially devastating
- Families faced considerable discrimination from fascists
- Others saw it as dangerous to employ anyone who had returned from Confino
What was formed in late 1926, what did they do and who were they led by?
- Political Police division
- Led by Arturo Bocchini
- Had considerable network of spies in Italy + Italian communities abroad
Who was SIM, why did the Political Police division work with them, when did they do this?
- Military spying organisation
- Jun 1937
- To organise assassination of prominent Italian anti-fascist exiles Carlos + Nello Rosselli in Paris by French fascist grp members
When was OVRA set up, who was it led by, whose control was it under and what was its role?
- 1927
- Bocchini
- Under Ministry of Interior
- Spy on Italians across Italy + stamp down on any domestic antifascist activities
How many informers operating in Italy and OVRA were successful in stopping organisation of anti-fascist grps?
Around 5000
Where could OVRA spies be found and what forms of media did they examine?
- Infiltrated unis, businesses + fascist unions
- Anywhere where working men + women would meet
- Mail examined
Who listened in to phone calls?
Special Reserve Service
What was the militia used for and how many members did it have?
- Intimidate potential political opponents
- Beat up uncooperative people
- Seize property
- 50,000
Where did the fascists set up prisons (give examples), why and how many were sent there during fascist regime? How many were kept as political prisoners in this time?
- Remote areas eg. islands of Lipari + Lampedusa
- To house political opponents
- 10,000 sent there
- 5,000 as political prisoners
How many Italians is it estimated Bocchini held files on, but how many of these were actually arrested and sent to prison?
- Over 130,000
- 4000 arrested + sent to prison
When was the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State set up?
Nov 1926
How many cases did the Special Tribunals prosecute?
132,547 cases
How many death sentences did the Special Tribunal carry out before WW2 and what was the reason for this number?
- Only 9
- Repression was so successful that there was little serious opposition
Who was Mussolini most concerned about for the national security of Italy and why?
- Nationalist movements among Slovenes living in Italy
- They were restricted in their culture + speech of their national language
- Faced considerable oppression from fascist authorities
