Women's civil rights - political campaign 1960-1992

Question 1

Why did the 1964 civil rights act include gender?

Answer 1

Howard Smith wanted to sabotage it, so jokingly said sex should be added, thinking this would discredit it.
But it was amended, and women were quick to bring legal cases on the basis of the Act against discrimination.
This led to NOW.

Question 2

What is NOW?

Answer 2

The National Organisation for Women was formed in 1966.
This linked back to the 1920s National Women’s party.
It’s aim was full participation in society and an equal relationship with men.

Question 3

How did the aim of NOW emerge?

Answer 3

New feminism, report on american women, the 1960s movement for change.

Question 4

What was the new kind of feminism?

Answer 4

This feminism challenged the basis of women’s role in society and was influenced by writers like Betty Friedan.
Demands for political and social change were underpinned by an ideology that had not been apparent in previous movements.

Question 5

What was the report on american women?

Answer 5

This study in 1963, commissioned by Kennedy, was worked on by highly educated women.
It was read by the elite and found the statistics of unequal pay, opportunities, political participation and status disturbing.

Question 6

What was the movement for change?

Answer 6

The Republican ascendancy of the Eisenhower years gave way to reforming democrat administration by Kennedy.
His new Frontier gave the impression that change was needed after a long period of internal stagnation.
This was then continued under Johnson and his great society.

Question 7

What did the new desire for reform have problems with?

Answer 7

It was not united in its aims or strategy.
It faced considerable conservative opposition, often from women.
Neither of the political parties took it seriously.
Radical supporters often alienated mainstream support.

Question 8

What was the diversity of the women’s groups?

Answer 8

They were diverse, but shared an overall aim of equality which had been lacking in the 30s and 40s.
There were specific female issues - paid maternity leave and tax concessions for housewives.
But a unifying thrust was equality in key areas like education, employment and political organisations.

Question 9

What is the Women’s Equity League Action?

Answer 9

Even this breakaway group, who rejected NOW’s support for abortion reform, pressed for equality in education.
They brought action against 300 schools and colleges that discriminated against women.
NOW brought legal action against employers who broke the 1967 executive order against sex discrimination by companies with federal contracts.

Question 10

What is ERA?

Answer 10

The Equal Rights Amendment was the main focus from 1970s, but went back to 1923.
If the constitutional right to vote was equal, why not their legal and social status.
But the same arguments that had previously prevented its passing reemerged.

Question 11

What were the failings to pass the ERA?

Answer 11

Every year from 1923 it had been proposed, but it was not until 1970, as a result of increased pressure from NOW and other groups, that it was debated by both houses of congress. But not passed.
In 1950 and 53, the Senate passed it, but a new condition added saying women could keep their existing special protections.
Without full equality, the supporters did not accept it.

Question 12

What is the Equal Pay Act?

Answer 12

In 1962, Kennedy appointed a commission, led by Eleanor Roosevelt.
This recommended the Equal Pay act which was passed in 1963.
This made a constitutional amendment unnecessary.
This, and continuing opposition, prevented any more progress.

Question 13

How did ERA evolve?

Answer 13

There were key speeches by supporters in congress and a return to the suffrage agitation seen before 1917.
February 1970, supporters picketed congress, and disrupted a congressional committee considering lowering the voting age to address equality.

Question 14

How did ERA become more militant?

Answer 14

August 1972, 20,000 women striked, calling for full equality.
Betty Friedan’s ardent advocacy, supported by congresswoman Martha Griffiths, and with direct action and demonstrations, marked the expansion of militancy.
This conicided with other movements for women’s liberation and demonstrations on political issues like the Vietnam war.

Question 15

What happened with ERA in 1972?

Answer 15

In 1972 the ERA passed the House of Representatives.
Then an edited version, excluding women from the draft passed congress.
President Nixon accepted it.
30 states accepted it, but the opposition to it becoming law was very effective.

Question 16

Who is Phyllis Schlafly?

Answer 16

A Republican from Illinois, she organised women to oppose the measure very effectively.
She had views such as sexual harrassment is not a problem for the virtuous women, men should start treating feminists like the men they want to be, men should stand up the feminists who humiliate men.

Question 17

What was the rational arguments against ERA?

Answer 17

Women might find themselves liable for military service, might lose protection rights, and mainly for older women, alimony (divorce settlements) would be threatened.
It was said to be more a measure for young, single women, competing with men for jobs, rather than working class women or older who needed special protection.

Question 18

What are the traditional arguments against ERA?

Answer 18

Appeal for the traditional lifestyle common in suburban America, to be looked after by men and look after children.
There was the danger that women would not gain custody as easily of children in divorce. This undermined the belief that children needed their mother, and the duty could not be done by men.

Question 19

What is Nixon’s silent majority?

Answer 19

This was the mass of middle class who were conservative and opposed to social change.
They asserted themselves.
The move towards conservatism led by Reagan, was able to prevent the amendment being ratified.
The republicans removed their support, despite Eisenhower previously supporting it.

Question 20

What was the sexism movement of feminism?

Answer 20

It was not an organised movement, rather a general attitude.
Small groups of women would meet to discuss the position of women, sexual relationships etc which made them more aware of the inequality.

Question 21

What was the political movement of the 1970s and 80s?

Answer 21

80,000-100,000 women participated in some kind of women’s group in the 70s.
The social agenda was wider, health, abortion, marriage, divorce, sexuality and rights for older and working women.
This was focused on a second wave of feminism - women centred issues, rather than gaining the vote.

Question 22

What was the economic inequality of women?

Answer 22

Female wages were 63% of men’s in 1956, and fell to 56% in 1973.
Day care centres were not adequate for the number of working mothers, and there was no tax relief for children until 1977, despite this being well established in the UK.

Question 23

What was the situation by 1992 - education and work?

Answer 23

The 1980s saw an expansion of education for women, with nearly half of degrees going to women.
But the proportion in science and engineering remained much lower.
Less than 8% of engineers were women in 1990.
The majority of women still studied ‘female subjects’ and worked in ‘female occupations’.

Question 24

What was the situation by 1992 - political position?

Answer 24

There were limited women in decision-making positions.
Despite the equal pay act 1963, women were paid 32% less than men.
It took until 1984 for a major party to select a women vice presidential candidate - Geraldine Ferraro, who lost.
It was not until 1981 that a women was appointed to the supreme court - Sandra Day O’Conner.
Jeane KirkPatrick held a major diplomatic post as ambassador to the UN.

Question 25

What was the situation by 1992?

Answer 25

The 19th amendment was passed, but the ERA failed, limiting its impact.
The second wave of feminism led to more awareness of gender issues, but did not lead to equal rights guaranteed by the constitution.
Women did not hold major government posts, there was 12 female cabinet members, but not in the top positions. This was mirrored on a local level.

Question 26

What are the statistics of women in the House of Representatives and Senate?

Answer 26

In the HoR, the percentage never rose above 6% at the end of the period. This shows that women were not truly represented as the majority were men who would not listen to the women or understand their issues.
In the Senate the number of females maxed at 4 out of 100.