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NURS360 - Socialization II: Nursing Research > Week 6.1: Research Design > Flashcards

Week 6.1: Research Design Flashcards

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1
Q

Key questions for quan. research design interventions

A

will there be an intervention?

what types of comparisons will be made?

How will confounding variables be controlled?

will blinding be used?

how often will data be collected?

when will “Effects” be measured, relative to potential causes?

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2
Q

The key goal for quan research design is

A

to make the best possible design for a study possible that controls for many possible weaknesses but can work with our question

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3
Q

Key Design Features that determine research design options

A

Intervention

Comparison

Control over confounding variables

Blinding

Time frames

Relative timing

Location

Affordability

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4
Q

There is no perfect..

A

research study

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5
Q

Many (if not most) quan research questions are about ___ and ___ (___)

A

cause; effects (causality)

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6
Q

Research questions that seek to illuminate causal relationships need to…

A

be addressed with appropriate design

*every research deign has its strength and the goal is to get to the next level of research and work up to a causal study

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7
Q

Counterfactual

A

it is what would have happened to the same people exposed to a “Cause” if they simultaneously were NOT exposed to the cause

basically the control - what if they did not get the condition of interest

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8
Q

Counterfactuals are harder to get when

A

we cannot control the intervention!

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9
Q

What is this: What would the COVID-19 rate be like if NOT for vaccination

A

counterfactual

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10
Q

It is harder to prove counterfactuals in areas like…

A

public health - hard to prove a negative (if prevention works then its hard to prove)

counterfactuals are more hypothetical in population research

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11
Q

Effect

A

represents the difference between what actually did happen when exposed to the cause and what would happen with the counterfactual condition

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12
Q

What are the 3 criteria for causalit/making causal inferences

A

Temporal

Relationship

Cofounder

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13
Q

Temporal Aspect of Causal Inferences

A

the idea that the cause MUST PRECEDE THE EFFECT in time (not the other way)

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14
Q

Relationship Aspect of Causal Inferences

A

the idea that there MUST BE A DEMONSTRATED ASSOCIATION between the cause and the effect

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15
Q

Cofounder Aspect of Causal Inferences

A

the idea that the relationship between the presumed cause and effect CANNOT BE EXPLAINED BY A THIRD VARIABLE OR COFOUNDER

another factor related to both the presumed cause and effect cannot be the “real” one

ex: “people drinking a lot of coffee have higher rates of lung cancer” = confoundvariable is that those drinking coffee also smoked cigarettes

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16
Q

What is the additional fourth criteria for causal inferences in research when its based in health research/nurse research

A

Biological Plausibility

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17
Q

Biological Plausibility

A

A fourth criteria for causality needed by health research

it states the causal relationship should be consistent with evidence from basic physiologic studies

this stops use from grabbing two things and making magical conclusions

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18
Q

What are the 4 types of questions of health research that determines the different designs used for research

A
  1. Therapy Questions
  2. Prognosis Questions
  3. Etiology/Harm Questions
  4. Description
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19
Q

What design offers the strongest evidence of whether a cause (intervention) results in an effect (a desired outcome)

A

Experimental Designs (RCTs)

Thats why they are high on evidence hierarchies for questions about cause and effect

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20
Q

What makes a quasi experimental design different

A

you cannot randomize the sample

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21
Q

What makes a cohort study, case, or descriptive/correlational design different

A

cannot manipulate the IV in these cases

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22
Q

Hierarchy of Research Design in Therapy Questions

A
  1. RCT/Expt Design
  2. Quasi design
  3. Cohort study
  4. Case control
  5. descriptive/correlational
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23
Q

Hierarchy of Research Design in Prognosis Questions

A
  1. Cohort Study
  2. Case Control
  3. Descriptive/Correlational
    * RCT is not available so you have to start lower which in this case is a prospective study that looks retrospectively*
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24
Q

Hierarchy of Research Design in Harm Questions

A
  1. RCT/Experimental
  2. Quasi Experimental
  3. Cohort Study
  4. Case Control
  5. Descriptive/correlational
    * We control things again in this type of question so we can now use RCT and quasi once more*
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25
Q

You can use what kind of sampling compairsons in a research study design

A

within groups

between groups

both

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26
Q

Within Groups Comparison

A

comparisons about measurements made with the same subjects at different points in time

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27
Q

Between Groups Comparison

A

Comparisons made with more than one group of subjects at one or more points in time

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28
Q

Schema

A

shorthand visual description of the design of a study

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29
Q

What does O, X, and R mean in a schema

A

R = its an experimental design/randomization

O = observation

X = intervention

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30
Q

What would O1 X O2 mean

A

it means Group one observed at one time and then group one observed at a time after an intervention

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31
Q

Which groups are we interested in comparing in the schema:

O1 X O2
O3 O4

A

O2 and O4 because they are outcome and control post interventions

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32
Q

Intervention

A

the researcher doing something to some subjects - introducing an intervention or treatment

pre and post tests

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33
Q

Control

A

the researcher introduces controls, including the use of a control and experimental groups

can be its own group or a group acting as its own control

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34
Q

Randomization

A

the experimenter assigns participants to a control or experimental condition on a random basis

the purpose is to make the groups equal with regard to all other factors except receipt of the intervention

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35
Q

You always need what 3 things for an experimental design schema

A

Intervention (X)

Randomization (R)

Control

Outcome (O)

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36
Q

The symbol O means

A

measurement at a point in time

observation, data collection

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37
Q

The symbol X means

A

intervention or treatment

sometimes listed as T

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38
Q

The symbol R means

A

randomization

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39
Q

If you can manipulate the IV and you can randomize what sort of research design can be used

A

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

“Classic” Experiment
Post Test Only
Solomon 4 Group
Crossover

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40
Q

A quasi experimental study lacks what part of the schema

A

R

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41
Q

Posttest-Only (or after only) Experimental Design

A

outcome data collected only after the intervention

Schema:
R X O
R O

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42
Q

Why is posttest-only design risky experimental design

A

because you do not know a baseline

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43
Q

Pretest-posttest (before-after) design

A

outcome data collected both at BASELINE and after the intervention

Schema:
R O X O
R O O

An RCT / Classic Experimental Design

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44
Q

Crossover Design

A

Subjects are exposed to 2+ conditions in random order and the subjects serve as their own control

Schema:
R O Xa O Xb O
R O Xb O Xa O

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45
Q

Why is crossover design risky experimental design

A

because if the participant favors one intervention over another they may continue using it even when you dont want them too

this is one of the only ways you will ever see a one group experimental trial

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46
Q

Protocol

A

the way someone describes their intervention in a study

should be replicable only by reading

“Operational Definition” of the IV

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47
Q

The sample serves as a proxy for what? The results serve as a proxy for what?

A

general population; the intervention

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48
Q

The more complex an intervention…

A

the more the results may diverge from real life

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49
Q

Intervention Fidelity

A

Treatment Fidelity

Whether the treatment as planned was actually delivered and received the way that it was supposed to

ex: Even at home medicaitons are a proxy for what is ideal as things like inaffordability, dislike, etc all mess with fidelity and effect if it transfers to real world situations

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50
Q

“Usual Care”

A

standard or normal procedures used to treat patient

the control group would get this, and the experimental group may get this on top of an intervention for safety and ethic reasons (beneficence)

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51
Q

Placebo

A

pseudointervention

when a fake intervention with no presumed therapeutic value is used

52
Q

Delayed treatment and the Attention-control condition

A

it means wait listing the control group for the intervention

if it is of benefit you must give it to the control group

53
Q

Attention Control

A

control group condition

extra attention but not the active ingredient of the intervention

so it is the researcher giving extra attention to you to make it appear you are not just in the control group

54
Q

Delayed Treatment (“Wait Listed Controls”) Control

A

the intervention is given at a later date - often for measurement at baseline adn then look at outcome of the experimental gorup and then give it to the control if ok and after

55
Q

Schema of a Delayed Treatment Control

A

R O X O O

R O O X O

56
Q

Advantages of Experiments

A

most powerufl for detecting cause and effect relationships

57
Q

Disadvantages of Experiments

A

often no feasible or ethical, Hawthrone effect (knowledge of being in a study may cause people to change their behavior), often expensive

58
Q

Quasi Experiments

A

involve an intervention but LACK either:

randomization

or

control group

59
Q

2 categories of quasi experimental designs

A
  1. nonequivalen control group designs

2. within subjects designs

60
Q

Non equivalent control group designs

A

quasi experimental

those getting the intervention are compared with a nonrandomized comparison group

61
Q

Within subjects designs

A

one group is studied before and after the intervention

quasi experimental

62
Q

What design is it if you can manipulate the IV but you cannot randomize

A

quasi experimental:

one group pre test/post test

non equivalent control group; pre test/posttest

one group time series

pre experimental

non equivalent control group post test only

1 group post test only

63
Q

One Group Time series

A

quasi experimental

measure repeatedly and often

the intervention is a rule o policy change and you continuously measure to see for change

O1O2XO3O4

64
Q

Nonequivalent Control group pretest posttest design

A

If pre intervention data are gathered, then the comparability of the experimental and comparison groups at the start of the study can be examined

quasi experimental: “Non equivalent control group pretest posttest design” - a non randomized or it doesnt have a control group

O1 X O2
O3 O4

65
Q

Nonequivalent control group posttest only

A

quasi experimental

very weak

withou pre intervention data it is risky to assume the groups were similar at the outset

X O1
O2

66
Q

Within Subjects Experiment: One group pretest-posttest designs

A

quasi experiment

typically yield extremely weak evidence of causal relationships

O1 X O2

67
Q

Within Subjects Experiment: Time Series Design

A

quasi experiment

gather a preintervention and postintervention data over a longer period

usually go and work at the population level by looking at rates - vaccine status over time, smoking over time, car crashes before and after seatbelt mandate

O1O2O3O4XO5O6O7O8

68
Q

Advantage and Disadvantage of Quasi Experiments

A

May be easier and more practical than true experiments BUT

makes it more difficult to infer causality and usually there are several alternative RIVAL HYPOTHESES for results

69
Q

Non experimental studies

A

if reserachers do not intervene by controlling IV, the study is nonexperimental (observational)

still quantitative

70
Q

Why use non experimental design

A

not all IV (Causes) of interest to nurse researchers can be experimentally manipulated

ex: gender or smoking - not ethical or practical

71
Q

Ex Post Factor Non Experimental Design

A

Taking one observation/measurement at a set time

schema:

O1

72
Q

Most non experimental studies are ____ design

A

correlational

73
Q

Correlational Designs

A

Cause probing questions (prognosis, etiology/harm, etc) for which manipulation isnt possible are typically addressed with correlational design

weaker than RCTs for cause probing questions, but different designs offer varying degrees of supportive evidence

weaker than causality because we dont know if intervention/cause lead to result or vice versa

74
Q

Correlation

A

an association between variables and can be detected through statistical analysis

75
Q

Prospective Correlational Design

A

non experimental

A potential cause in the present (ex: Experiencing v not experiencing a miscarriage) is linked to a hypothesized later outcome (ex: depression 6 mo later)

76
Q

Another name for Prospective Correlational Design is

A

Cohort Study

77
Q

What is stronger, prospective correlational design or retrospective correlational design

A

prospective - it is a little better at supporting causal influences because of the choice to ata to collect as compared to holding onto what data was drawn and having to stick to it

still not as strong as experimental design

78
Q

Retrospective Correlational Design

A

non experimental

outcome in the present (ex: depression) is linked to a hypothesized cause occurring in the past (ex: having had a miscarriage)

79
Q

Another type of Restrospective design is…

A

case control design!

Where cases (ex: those with lung cancer) are compared to controls (ex: those without) on prior potential causes (e: smoking habits)

80
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Not all research is probing like in experimental, quasi, and non experimental

the purpose of this is to observe, describe, and document aspects of a situation - NOT QUALITATIVE, a type of non experimental design

some research is descriptive (ex: ascertaining the prevalence of a health problem like COVID-19) or descriptive correlational (where the purpose is to describe whether variables are related, without ascribing a cause and effect connection at all)

81
Q

Advantage of nonexperimental research

A

efficient way to collect large amounts of data when intervention and/or randomization is not possible

can collect a lot of data and acts as a good place to start climbing the research design ladder

82
Q

Disadvantages of nonexperimental research design

A

does no yield persuasive evidence for casal inferences

this is not a problem when the aim is described though, but correlational studies are often undertaken to discover causes

83
Q

Time Dimensions in Research Design

A

Cross Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

84
Q

Cross Sectional Design

A

data is collected at a single point in time

85
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

data is collected two or more times over an extended period

beneficial as it is better at showing patterns of change and at clarifying whether a cause occurred before an effect (outcome)

86
Q

What is the challenge despite the benefit of longitudinal design

A

Attrition

87
Q

Attrition

A

loss of participants over time

88
Q

Ways to control the study context/external factors

A
  1. Achieve constancy of conditions
  2. Control over environment, setting, time
  3. Control over intervention via a formal protocol: intervention fidelity
    * we can control thigns v well but the flip side is the more we control the less people actually act like that irl*
89
Q

Ways tot control participant factors

A
  1. Randomization (or subjects as own controls (crossover design))
  2. Homogeneity (restricting the sample) - but may lessen generalizability
  3. Matching
  4. Statistical Control - ex: ANCOVA
90
Q

What is Matching

A

taking demographics you want an making sure the control and experimental group are demographically similar

91
Q

Characteristics of Good Quantitative Research Design

A

High statistical conclusion validity

High internal validity

High external validity

Construct validity

92
Q

Validity

A

degree to which you can trust the results of your research study

93
Q

Statistical Conclusion Validity

A

the ability to detect true relationships statistically

94
Q

Internal Validity

A

the extent to which it can be inferred that the IV caused or influenced the DV and not other factors

95
Q

External Validity

A

the generalizability of the observed relationships across samples, settings or time

96
Q

Construct Validity

A

the degree to which key constructs are adequately captured in the study

how well we defined what is being studied

97
Q

Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity

A

low stat power (small sample size - big one!)

weakly defined “cause” - IV not powerful

unreliable implementation of a treatment - low intervention fidelity

if group is not a good proxy to population of interest

98
Q

What is the relationship of internal and external validity

A

its like a see saw

as things get more tightly controlled for research internal validity rises but external validity (generalizability) decreases

99
Q

Threats to Internal Validity

A

Temporal Ambiguity

Selection Threat

History Threat

Maturation threat

Mortality and Attrition threat

100
Q

Temporal Ambiguity Threat

A

internal validity threat

to establish causation you need an event to proceed the effect

101
Q

Selection Threat

A

biases arising from preexisting differences between groups being compared

threat to int validity

does it actually apply to the group you hope to generalize to

102
Q

What is the single biggest threat to internal validity

A

selection threat

103
Q

History threat

A

other events co occurring with causal factor that could also affect outcomes

threat to int validity

ex: NUrsing school stuck online because of pandemic, changes NCLEX pass rates

104
Q

Maturation Threat

A

processes that result simply from the passage of time

ex: disease getting worse over time, children aging

threat to in validity

105
Q

Mortality/Attrition threat

A

diffential loss of participants from different groups

typically a threat in experimental studies

threat to int validity

106
Q

When does attrition become a big issue for a study

A

When the groups are no longer equal at baseline - this is a key reason to ahve baseline measurements with 2 groups, so you can reevaluate and check even if some people are lost

107
Q

How to reduce history threat

A

random selection or assignment

*that way changes are seen equally in both groups

108
Q

How to reduce maturation threat

A

control groups, random assignment, and tkaing baseline data

We need to see that maturation impact in both groups to control baseline changes

109
Q

How to reduce selection threat

A

random sampling and random assignment

MOST COMMON THREAT

we may only have access to convenience sampling so we need to use probability assessment methods and random assignments so they are similar to one another by group equally

110
Q

How to reduce mortality/attrition threat

A

collection of demographic variables from all subjects for future comparison to those who complete

communicate clear instructions and expectations regarding participation in the study from the start

A 2 FOLD WAY TO STOP THIS

111
Q

Attrition of ___% or lower is acceptable

A

20%

112
Q

Instrumentation threat

A

threat to in validity

comes from inconsistency in data collection - so the way we collect data affects type of data we get (ex; an anon questionnaite may get different answers than an in person interview)

113
Q

How to reduce instrumentation threat

A

comprehensive trainin of data collectors

reliability and validity of instruments

114
Q

Anything that changes the outcome that is not the IV is…

A

a threat to internal validity

115
Q

Testing Threat

A

threat to int validity

Multiple testing might influence subjects response on subsequent testing just the act of testing and repeating may influence results

116
Q

How to reduce Testing Threat

A

Post test only design

Control group tested the same # of times or prolong length of time between the tests

117
Q

What are the 3 threats to external validity

A

person

time

place

118
Q

How does person, time and place threaten external validity

A

Homogenous samples (person) increasing internal validity will threaten generalizability

Healthcare or experiments in other countries or areas can really impact replication in other areas like the USA in many ways (Place)

technological interventions like obseletion can threaten replication and generalizability (Time)

119
Q

Construct Validity

A

general question of if the intervention is a good representation of the underlying construct

120
Q

Threats to construct validity

A

is the intervention a good representation of the underlying construct

is the intervention or awareness of the intervention that resulted in benefits

does the DV really measure the intended construct

Basically, is this a good PROXY FOR WHAT WE ARE TALKING ABOUT IRL

121
Q

T/F: An experimental research design involves a nonrandomized controlled trial

A

False

*A quasi experimental research design involves a controlled trial without randomization

122
Q

Which characteristic is a key criterion for causality?

A. cause occurring before the effect

B. third variable involved with the cause and effect

C. no empirical relationship between the cause and effect

D. single source evidence about the relationship

A

A. cause occurring before the effect

*three key criteria for causality are cause preceding effect in time, demonstrated empirial relationship between the cause and effect, relationship not being explained by a third variable - an additional criterion is that evidence of the relationship should come from multiple resources

123
Q

T/F: A true experiment requires that the research manipulate the IV by administering an experimental treatment (Or intervention) to some subjects while withholding it from others

A

B. True

*In a true experiment the reseracher manipulates or does something, usually an intervention or treatment, to some subjects and not to others

124
Q

Which design is considered a quasi experimental research design?

A. pretest posttest design

B. posttest only design

C. crossover design

D. within subjects design

A

D. within subjects design

*Quasi experimental research designs include non equivalent control groups and within subject designs - the other designs are used for expt research

125
Q

T/F: Cross sectional research designs are helpful in showing patterns of change

A

False

*Longitudinal studies in which data are colelcted two or more times over an extended period, are better at showing patterns of change than cross sectional studies, which collect data at a single point in time

NURS360 - Socialization II: Nursing Research (13 decks)

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