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DS1102 > Week 4 - Intro Respiratory System > Flashcards

Week 4 - Intro Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

What is the main function of the respiratory system

A

Supply the body with oxygen and dispose of CO2

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2
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation (breathing)

A

movement of air in and out of the lungs

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3
Q

What is external respiration

A

diffusion of O2 from the lungs to the blood and CO2 from the blood to the lungs

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4
Q

what is internal respiration

A

diffusion of O2 from blood to tissue cells and CO2 from tissue cells to blood

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5
Q

What are the anatomical divisions of the respiratory system

A
  • Upper respiratory tract: Nose to larynx portion above vocal cords
  • Lower respiratory tract: Larynx from vocal cords, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs
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6
Q

What are the functional divisions of the respiratory system

A
  • Conducting zone: Provides route for incoming and outgoing air, removes debris and pathogens from the incoming air…

nose to respiratory bronchioles, allow air to reach site of gas exchange, also cleanses and conditions air

  • Respiratory zone :Involves structures that re directly involved in gas exchange

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli (all microscopic structures), actual site of gas exchange

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7
Q

What is in the conducting zone

A

nose to respiratory bronchioles, allow air to reach site of gas exchange, also cleanses and conditions air

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8
Q

What is apart of the respiratory zone

A

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli (all microscopic structures), actual site of gas exchange

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9
Q

What is the function of the conducting zone

A
  • Warms air to within 0.5 degrees of body temperature
  • Humidifies air to within 2-3% of complete saturation with water vapour
  • Removes small particles (defense) - using mucus and cilia
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10
Q

Why does the trachobronchial tree branch in a fractal tree manner

A

to maximise surface area for gas exchange and to minimise distance between alveolar air and capillaries

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11
Q

What are the segments of the trachea

A
  1. Trachea
  2. Main bronchus
  3. Lobar bronchus
  4. Segmental bronchus
  5. Bronchiole
  6. Alveolar Duct
  7. Alveolus
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12
Q

What is airway patency and why is it important

A

Airway patency is the state of the lungs and airway being open and unobstructed, allowing air to freely flow into and out of the lungs.

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13
Q

How does airway patency occur (4)

A
  • Trachea cartilage rings - allows airway to remain open
  • Bronchi less extensive cartilage plates
  • Bronchioles kept open by air pressure in airway plus support from surrounding lung tissue (radical traction)
  • Alveolar patency - surfactant secreted by type 2 alveolar cells - surface tension causes alveolar to collapse, surfactant reduces this water tension
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14
Q

Describe airway mucosa

A
  • Mucus layer moistens surface of respiratory passage and is the first line of defense
  • Secreted by goblet cells in epithelial lining and small submucosal glands
  • Physical barrier to protect the lung with properties that help trap and disarm potentially infectious bacteria, fungi, and viruses
  • Normal lung is kept free from bacteria
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15
Q

What is mucociliary clearance

A

critical defense mechanism of the respiratory system that helps remove mucus, along with trapped particles (dust, bacteria and other debris) from the lungs and airways. This helps prevent respiratory infections such as pneumonia.

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16
Q

What enables mucocilary clearance to occur

A
  • Alveolar macrophages
  • Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium which lines the respiratory passages removes mucus
  • Power stroke towards pharynx where mucus is swallowed or coughed out
  • Mocosal epithelium thins as it changes from pseudostratified columnar to columnar and then to cuboidal in terminal bronchioles.
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17
Q

What do alveolar macrophages do

A

type of immune cell found in the alveoli which clear particles from alveoli - they remove phagocytose foreign pathogens (dust or microorganisms) but also apoptotic and necrotic cells.

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18
Q

What are the 2 key principles of Pulmonary ventilation

A
  1. Air Movement in and out of lungs are dependent on pressure gradients between
    - Atmospheric pressure (P atm)
    - Intra-alveolar pressure (P alv)
  2. Inverse relationship between volume and pressure (Boyle’s Law) - It explains that as volume increases pressure decreases, and vice versa
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19
Q

For air to move into the lungs what is the pressure gradient between atmospheric pressure and intra-alveolar pressure

A

intra- alveolar pressure < Atmospheric pressure

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20
Q

For air to move out of the lungs what is the pressure gradient between atmospheric pressure and intra-alveolar pressure

A

Alveolar pressure > Atmospheric pressure

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21
Q

What is boyles law

A

as volume increases pressure decreases and vice versa

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22
Q

What are the 2 types of breathing

A
  • quite breathing
  • active breathing
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23
Q

What occurs in quite breathing during inspiration

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals contract

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24
Q

What occurs in active breathing during inspiration

A

Accessory muscles activate e.g. sternocleidomastoid and scalenes

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25
Q

What does quite breathing and active breathing cause during inspiration

A

the thoracic cavity and lung volume to expand, hence decreasing pressure

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26
Q

How does changing the volume of the thorax change the volume of the lung

A

As the thoracic cavity expands the intrapleural pressure becomes more negative. This increased negativity enhances the suction effect on the lungs, causing them to expand.

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27
Q

What occurs in quite breathing during expiration

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals relax - elastic recoil

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28
Q

What occurs in active breathing during expiration

A

accessory muscles activated e.g. internal intercostals and abdominals

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29
Q

What does quite and active breathing cause during expiration

A

causes thoracic cavity and lung volume to reduce hence increasing pressure.

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30
Q

What indicates that a lung is healthy

A
  • Healthy lungs are stretchy and elastic - easy expansion and ready recoil
  • Reduced by factors that impair resilience (elasticity) of lungs e.g. fibrosis
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31
Q

What are principal muscles of inspiration

A
  • Diaphragm
  • External Intercostals
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32
Q

What are accessory muscles of inspiration

A
  • Sternocleidomastoid
  • Scalene muscles
  • Pectoralis Minor
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33
Q

What are active breathing muscles of expiration

A
  • Internal intercostals
  • Abdominals
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34
Q

What are quite breathing muscles of expiration

A

Passive recoil of the lungs, rib cage and diaphragm

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35
Q

What is tidal volume (TV)

A

the amount of air that normally enters the lungs during quiet breathing which is about 0.5L each breath. With 12-18 breaths per minute in adults.

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36
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

the amount of air you can forcefully exhale past a normal tidal expiration (approximately 1-1.2L)

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37
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

produced by a deep inhalation, past a tidal inspiration. This is the extra volume that can be brought into the lungs during force inspiration.

38
Q

What is residual volume

A

the air left in the lungs if you exhale as much air as possible (maximal exhalation. This makes breathing easier because it prevents alveoli from collapsing.

39
Q

What is the purpose of residual volume

A

extra air prevents alveoli from collapsing

40
Q

What is dead space

A

air that is present in the airway that never reaches the alveoli and therefore never participates in gas exchange.

41
Q

What is respiratory capacities

A

the combination of 2 or more selected volumes which further describe the amount of air in the lungs during a given time.

42
Q

What is vital capacity (VC)

A

the amount of air a person can move into or out of their lungs, and is the sum of all the volumes except residual volume (TV, ERV and IRV)

43
Q

What is total lung capacity (TLC)

A

the sum of all of the lung volumes (TV, ERV, IRV and RV) which represents the total amount of air a person can hold in the lungs after a forceful inhalation (approx 6L for men and 4.2 for women)

44
Q

What is inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled past a normal tidal expiration , it is the sum of TV and IRV

45
Q

What is functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

the amount of air that remains in the lung after a normal tidal expiration, it is the sum of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume.

46
Q

What is Dalton’s law

A

Dalton’s law states that a specific gas type in a mixture exerts its own pressure, thus the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture

47
Q

What are the components of dry air

A

Dry air is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20.9%), other gases, argon, carbon dioxide

48
Q

What is henry’s law

A

The partial pressure of gases in solution is determined by concentration and by solubility of coefficient of the gas

*Gas molecules which are physically or chemically attracted to water can be more dissolved in a solution without building up extra pressure e.g. CO2

*Gas molecules which repel water cause a high partial pressure because there are fewer dissolved molecules.

the partial pressure of a gas in a solvent is inversely proportional to its solubility in this solvent.

49
Q

What is respiratory membrane

A
  • Site of gas exchange in all terminal portions of the lungs
  • Solid network of interconnecting capillaries of flowing blood (papillary plexus)
  • alveolar gases are in very close proximity to capillary blood
  • overall thickness averages about 0.6 um (short distance to increase gas diffusion
50
Q

How many layers are present in the respiratory membrane

A

6

51
Q

What are the 6 layers of the respiratory membrane

A
  • A layer of fluid with surfactant lining alveoli to reduce surface tension
  • Alveolar epithelium composed of thin epithelial cells
  • Epithelial basement membrane
  • Thin interstitial space between alveolar epithelium and capillary membrane
  • Capillary basement membrane that fuses with alveolar epithelial basement membrane in many places
  • Capillary endothelium
52
Q

Why does the diffusion of CO2 out of blood occur

A

For CO2 there is a greater partial pressure in the dissolved state in the blood - resulting in a net diffusion into the alveoli. There is a higher pressure of CO2 in the blood than in the alveoli, hence CO2 diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli.

53
Q

Why does the diffusion of O2 into the blood occur

A

For O2 there is a greater partial pressure in gas phase in alveoli hence there is a net diffusion into the blood. There is a higher pressure of O2 in the alveoli than in the blood, hence O2 will diffuse out of the alveoli and into the blood stream.

54
Q

What is the rate of diffusion dependent on

A
  • Gas pressure differences between 2 slides of membrane - driven by ventilation
  • Surface area of respiratory membrane - may decrease with disease e.g. emphysema
  • Thickness of respiratory membrane - may increase with disease e.g. pulmonary oedema
55
Q

How is oxygen transported

A
  • oxygen is not very soluble hence is transported via haemoglobin
  • 98.5% of O2 in blood is bound to haemoglobin (Hb)
  • 1 Hb molecule can combine with 4 O2 molecules
56
Q

What are the 3 ways which CO2 is transported in the body

A
  1. 10% is dissolved in plasma - as it is highly soluble
  2. 25% is bound to haemoglobin in red blood cells, where the loading and unloading of CO2 influenced influenced by degree of Hb saturation with O2. Low O2 saturation of red blood cells favours association of CO2
  3. 65% is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) in plasma. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction of CO2 + water to form a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. This hydrogen ion produced causes the oxygen to be release from Hb, allowing the conversion of O2 and CO2
57
Q

What is the equation for CO2 converting into bicarbonate

A
58
Q
A

Inspiratory capacity

59
Q
A

Functional residual capacity

60
Q
A

Vital capacity

61
Q
A

Residual volume

62
Q
A

Total lung capacity

63
Q

During exercise how does Tidal volume change

A

Increases

64
Q

How does ERV change with exercise

A

Decreases due to an increase in TV

65
Q

What is the change in IRV during exercise

A

Decrease as TV increases

66
Q

How does TLC change during exercise

A

No change
Total lung capacity is mostly affected by a person’s age, gender or body shape. Total lung capacity generally increases from childhood to the age of 25 because the lungs are developing at this age, but generally not because of exercise. Exercise does not increase the volume of the lungs

67
Q

How does IC change during exercise

A

IC = TV + IRV. The increase in TV during exercise is associated with a slight IRV decrease but a higher decrease, so overall the sum of TV and IRV increase.

68
Q

How does FRC change with exercise

A

TLC does not change during exercise, so if IC increases, FRC has to decrease. OR air if forcefully expelled, FRC decrease – ERV decreases causing FRC to decrease.

69
Q

How does VC change during exercise

A

No change

VC is dependent on TV, ERV and IRV. While these three volumes change during exercise, the increase in TV is offset by corresponding decreases in ERV and IRV, so the sum of these volumes (VC) does not change.

70
Q

During exercise, the depth of respiration increases. Name the muscles involved in increasing the depth of respiration and explain how muscle contraction causes this increase.

A

Inhalation Sternocleidomastoids: elevate the sternum and clavicle, subsequently lifting the ribs
Scalenes: elevate first and second ribs, external intercoastals and diaphragm also contract more exhalation abdominals and internal intercoastals.

71
Q

Explain the importance of the change in minute ventilation with exercise.

A

During exercise the body’s oxygen requirements and carbon dioxide production increase considerably, which means the lungs need to move more air in a nd out to accommodate the increase oxygen demand for ATP production and ensure immediate removal of excess carbon dioxide, as blood carbon dioxide levels are tightly controlled in a very narrow range.

72
Q

What are the 3 respiratory centres

A
  1. Ventral respiratory group - in the ventrolateral part of the medulla
  2. Dorsal respiratory group - in the dorsal portion of the medulla
  3. Pontine respiratory centres - located dorsally in the superior part of the pons (brain stem)
73
Q

What is the function of the ventral respiratory group

A
  • sets the basic respiratory rhythm for quiet breathing
  • responsible for the control of inspiratory and expiratory during exercise
74
Q

How does the ventral respiratory group cause inspiration

A

inspiratory neurons fire causing an impulses to travel along the phrenic and intercostal nerve to excite the diaphragm and external intercostals. The thorax then expands and the air rushes into the lungs

75
Q

How does the ventral respiratory group causes expiration

A

Expiratory neurons fire causing inspiratory neurons to stop and then expiration occurs as inspiratory muscles relax and lung recoil

76
Q

What is the function of the dorsal respiratory group

A
  • Is involved in inspiration only
  • integrates peripherals sensory input
  • Modified the rhythms generated by the ventral respiratory group
77
Q

What is the function of the pontine respiratory centres

A
  • smooths out the transition from inspiration to expiration and vice versa
  • modifies and fine tune the breathing rhythms generated by the ventral respiratory group during certain activities (vocalization, sleep and exercise)
78
Q

What are the 2 chemoreceptors

A
  • Central Chemoreceptors (in brainstem)
  • Peripheral Chemoreceptors
79
Q

What molecule is most closely controlled in the body

A

CO2
the normal arterial CO2 partial pressure needing to be maintained to 40 +- 3mmHg

80
Q

What is the equation for CO2 producing H+ when dissolved

A
81
Q

What do the central chemoreceptors respond to

A
  • Is stimulated by a change in CO2 and H+ levels
82
Q

Where are central chemoreceptors located

A

Brainstem

83
Q

Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located

A

Mostly located in the carotid bodies but also in aortic bodies
exposed to arterial blood that has just left the heart

84
Q

What does the peripheral chemoreceptor respond to

A

Responds primarily to O2 (dissolved in blood) levels and to a lesser extent to changes in CO2 and H+

85
Q

What do the chemoreceptors do when there is an increased PCO2

A

increase ventilation rate (hyperventilation) to flush out excess CO2

86
Q

What do the chemoreceptors do when there is decreased PCO2

A

causes respiration to be inhibited causing breathing to become slow and shallow - hypoventilation and apnea (cessation of breathing)

87
Q

During normal, quiet breathing approximately how much air do we breath in every min

A

6L (tidal volume x the number of breather per minute (about 12)) tidal volume is usually about 0.5L

88
Q

Which cell type secretes respiratory mucous to line the airway mucosa as a protective mechanism to trap and disarm potentially infectious bacteria, fungi and viruses

A

goblet cells

89
Q

What type of epithelium which forms the inner lining of the airway

A

peudo-stratified columnar

90
Q

what enzyme facilitates the conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate

A

carbonic anhydrase

DS1102 (30 decks)

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