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LS 7C Soroosh > Week 4 (Exam 2): Sensory Systems; Muscles & Skeletal Systems > Flashcards

Week 4 (Exam 2): Sensory Systems; Muscles & Skeletal Systems Flashcards

1
Q

sensory receptor cells

A

sensory neurons with specialized membranes in which receptor proteins are embedded

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2
Q

sensory organs

A

a group of sensory receptors that converts particular physical & chemical stimuli into nerve impulses that are processed by a nervous system and sent to the brainmk

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3
Q

sensory transduction

A

the conversion of physical or chemical stimuli into nerve impulses

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4
Q

chemoreceptors

A

receptors that respond to molecules that bind to specific protein receptors on the cell membrane of the sensory receptor

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5
Q

first step of smelling

A

olfactory sensory neurons sense odorants that bind to specific receptors on chemosensitive hairs that project into the mucus

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6
Q

second step of smelling

A

action potentials produced in response to the binding of odorants to membrane receptors are sent to the olfactory interneurons

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7
Q

third step of smelling

A

interneurons integrate the odorant info received by olfactory receptors before sending it to the brain

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8
Q

process of smelling

A

odor molecules bind to sensory receptors —> intracellular G protein-coupled receptors activate —> opening of Na+ and Ca2+ ion channels —> depolarize the receptor & produce EPSPs —> interneurons in the olfactory bulb transmit the combined info to the brain

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9
Q

is an action potential fired with taste buds?

A

no

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10
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

respond to physical deformations of their membrane produced by touch, sound, stretch, pressure, or motion

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11
Q

hair cells

A

specialized mechanoreceptors that sense movement and vibration
-orient the animal’s body wrt gravity, detect motion, & hear

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12
Q

stereocilia

A

nonmotile cell-surface projections on hair cells whose movement causes a depolarization of the cell’s membrane

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13
Q

statocysts

A

a type of gravity sensing organ found in most invertebrates

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14
Q

statolith

A

a dense particle that moves freely within a statocyst, enabling it to sense gravity

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15
Q

vestibular system

A

a system in the vertebrate inner ear made up of 2 statocyst chambers and 3 semicircular canals

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16
Q

components of the outer ear

A

pinna, auditory canal, & tympanic membrane (eardrum)

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17
Q

middle ear components

A

malleus, incus, tapes

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18
Q

function of the middle ear bones

A

amplify the vibrations of the tympanic membrane & transmit them to a thin membrane of the cochlea

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19
Q

cochlea

A

a coiled chamber within the skull containing hair cells that convert sound (pressure) waves into an electrical impulse that travels to the brain

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20
Q

what do vibrations in the membrane do?

A

create fluid waves in the cochlea

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21
Q

what do the fluid waves in the cochlea do?

A

induce motion of the basilar membrane

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22
Q

what does motion in the basilar membrane do?

A

bends the stereocilia & stimuulates the hair cells to release EPSPs

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23
Q

electromagnetic receptors

A

respond to electrical, magnetic, or light stimuli

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24
Q

photoreceptors

A

molecules whose chemical properties are altered when they absorb light

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25
Q

opsin

A

a photosensitive protein that converts the energy of light photons into electrical signals in the receptor cell
- arranged in cylindrical groups in vertebrates

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26
Q

retinal

A

a derivative of vitamin A that absorbs light & binds to rhodopsin

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27
Q

rhodopsin

A

a transmembrane in the photosensitive receptor cells in the retina of vertebrates

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28
Q

types of eyes

A

eyecups, compound eyes, single-lens eye

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29
Q

eyecups

A

an eye structure found in flatworms that contains photoreceptors that point up & to the left or right

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30
Q

compound eyes

A

consists of a number of ommatidia

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31
Q

ommatidia

A

individual light-focusing elements
-the number of ommatidia determines the resolution of the image

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32
Q

single-lens eyes

A

works like a camera to produce a sharply defined image of the animal’s visual field

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33
Q

retina

A

a thin tissue in the back of the vertebrate eye that contains the photoreceptors & other nerve cells that sense & initially process light stimuli

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34
Q

rod cells

A

a type of photoreceptor cell on the vertebrate retina that detects light and shades ranging from white to shades of gray & black, but not color

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35
Q

cone cells

A

a type of photoreceptor cell on the vertebrate retina that detects color

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36
Q

which animals had the first muscle fibers?

A

cnidarians

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37
Q

fiber

A

a muscle cell which produces forces on an animal’s body & exerts forces on the environment
-uses ATP generated through cellular respiration

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38
Q

what do all muscle fibers contain?

A

actin & myosin

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39
Q

filaments

A

a thin thread of proteins that interacts with/ other filaments to cause muscles to shorten

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40
Q

what are the two groups of muscles?

A

striated & smooth

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41
Q

striated muscle appearance

A

striped under a light microscope due to regular thick (myosin) & thin (actin) filament spacing

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42
Q

two types of striated muscle

A

skeletal & cardiac

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43
Q

skeletal muscle function

A

connects to the body skeleton to move an animal’s limbs & torso
-elongated & multinucleated

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44
Q

cardiac muscle function

A

make up the walls of the atria & ventricles & contract to pump blood through the heart
-less elongated
-branched
-contain fewer nuclei per cell

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45
Q

where are smooth muscles found

A

in the walls of arteries, the respiratory system, the digestive, & excretory systems
-appears uniform under the light microscope

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46
Q

myofibrils

A

long rodlike structures in muscle fibers that contain parallel arrays of actin & myosin filaments

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47
Q

where is tropomyosin found?

A

in the grooves formed by the actin helices

48
Q

what does troponin do

A

helps to make more tropomyosin
-regularly spaced along the thin filament

49
Q

what does each myosin molecule consist of?

A

2 long polypeptide chains arranged in parallel to form a thick filament

50
Q

z discs

A

a protein backbone found regularly spaced along the length of a myofibril

51
Q

sarcomere

A

the region of myofilaments located within muscle myofibrils that span from one z disc to the next

52
Q

what is the basic contractile unit of a muscle?

A

the sarcomere

53
Q

what is at the middle of a sarcomere?

A

myosin thin filaments

54
Q

what is at the middle of thick filaments?

A

myosin heads that reversed their orientation in each half of the sarcomere

55
Q

how are the thin filaments related to the myosin thick filaments?

A

they overlap

56
Q

what links the myosin filaments to the z discs at the end of the sarcomere?

A

titin protein

57
Q

what gives striated muscle its appearance?

A

the regular pattern of actin & myosin filaments within sarcomeres along the length of the fiber

58
Q

what sort of lattice are thick and thin filaments arranged in?

A

hexagonal lattice

59
Q

sliding-filament model

A

the hypothesis that striated muscles produce force & change length by the sliding of actin filaments relative to myosin filaments

60
Q

when does actin-myosin overlap decrease?

A

when myofibrils are stretched

61
Q

when does actin-myosin overlap increase?

A

when myofibrils are relaxed

62
Q

what causes nearly all length change during a muscle contraction?

A

the sliding of actin filaments with respect to myosin filaments within individual sarcomeres

63
Q

what is a cross-bridge

A

the binding of the head of a myosin molecule to actin at a specific site between the myosin & actin filaments

64
Q

what is the cross-bridge cycle?

A

repeated sequential interactions between myosin heads that bind to & release from sites on actin filaments, forming & unforming cross-bridges, that cause the thin filament to slide relative to the thick filament & a muscle fiber to contract

65
Q

first step of the cross-bridge cycle

A

the myosin head binds ATP
-myosin head detaches from actin & readies it for attachment to actin again

66
Q

second step of the cross-bridge cycle

A

the myosin head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP & inorganic phosphate
-hydrolysis of ATP leads to a conformational change with the myosin head cocked back
-ADP & inorganic phosphates remain bound to myosin head
-myosin head is in a high-energy state

67
Q

third step of the cross-bridge cycle

A

myosin head binds to actin, forming a cross-bridge

68
Q

fourth step of the cross-bridge cycle

A

myosin head releases ADP & inorganic phosphate
-results in the power stroke

69
Q

power stroke

A

the stage in the muscle cross-bridge in which the myosin head pivots & generates a force, causing the myosin & actin filaments to slide relative to each other

70
Q

what is the motor endplate?

A

the postsynaptic region on a muscle cell where acetylcholine birds w/ receptors

71
Q

first step of excitation-contraction coupling

A

action potential —> release of acetylcholine & depolarization of skeletal muscle cell

72
Q

second step of excitation-contraction coupling

A

depolarization is conducted into the interior of the fiber by the infoldings of the cell membrane

73
Q

third step of excitation-contraction coupling

A

depolarization —> release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

74
Q

fourth step of excitation-contraction coupling

A

Ca2+ binds to the troponin, which causes movement of tropomyosin, exposure of myosin-binding sites on actin, & formation of cross-bridges to generate force & produce shortening of the muscle

75
Q

what is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

a modified form of the endoplasmic reticulum surrounding the myofibrils of muscle cells

76
Q

what is the excitation-contraction coupling?

A

the process that produces muscle force & movement, by coupling the excitation of the muscle cell by a motor neuron to contraction of the muscle

77
Q

what are antagonist muscles?

A

muscle pairs that pull in opposite directions at a joint to produce opposing muscles

78
Q

flexion

A

the joint motion in which bone segments rotate closer together

79
Q

extension

A

the joint movement that moves bone segments apart

80
Q

agonist muscles

A

muscle pairs that combine to produce similar motions

81
Q

what does the muscle’s ability to generate force depend on?

A

how much it is stretched

82
Q

isometric

A

describes the generation of muscle force without a change in muscle length

83
Q

lengthening contraction

A

the contraction of a muscle against a load greater than the muscle’s force output, leading to a lengthening of the muscle

84
Q

triten contraction

A

a muscle contraction that results from a single action potential

85
Q

tetanus contraction

A

a muscle contraction of sustained force resulting from multiple action potentials

86
Q

motor unit

A

a vertebrate motor neuron & the population of muscle fibers that it innervates

87
Q

what senses do the three semicircular canals in the mammalian inner ear provide?

A

a sense of angular motion and balance

88
Q

what type of sensory receptor is a hair cell?

A

mechanoreceptor

89
Q

Aging can sometimes lead to an increase in the stiffness at the base of the basilar membrane.

What affect would this have on a person’s hearing?

A

The person would lose the ability to hear high-pitched sounds.

90
Q

What is the primary function of a statolith?

A

to determine the direction of gravity

91
Q

the conversion of physical or chemical stimuli into nerve impulses is known as

A

sensory transduction

92
Q

how are sound vibrations amplified in a vertebrate ear?

A

by movement of the tympanic membrane, the bones in the middle ear, and the fluid-filled region covered by the oval window

93
Q

hair cells function by:

A

releasing neurotransmitters

94
Q

what type of channel is associated with ion transport in stereocilia?

A

stretch-gated channel

95
Q

what determines the specific wavelength of light absorbed by a cone cell?

A

the type of opsin present in the membrane

96
Q

what structure is the opening in the eye through which light passes called

A

the pupil

97
Q

within the human eye, photoreceptors are located within the:

A

retina

98
Q

cone cells most likely evolved from:

A

rod cells

99
Q

is color vision in vertebrates made possible by cone cells?

A

yes

100
Q

what structure is the light-absorbing compound used by photoreceptors?

A

retinal

101
Q

You take a human smooth muscle cell and block the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. What effect does that have on contraction of that smooth muscle cell, and why?

A

contraction still occurs because Ca2+ can enter the cell directly through Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane and bind to calmodulin

102
Q

what event does the power stroke correspond to in muscle contraction?

A

the sliding of actin relative to myosin filaments

103
Q

vertebrate smooth muscle cells are activated when Ca2+ binds to:

A

calmodulin

104
Q

why is calcium necessary for muscle contraction?

A

calcium is needed to activate troponin so that tropomyosin can be moved to expose the myosin-binding sites on the actin filament

105
Q

which molecule binds calcium?

A

troponin

106
Q

what stimulates a skeletal muscle cell to contract?

A

an impulse from a motor neuron

107
Q

ATP hydrolysis allows for what component of skeletal muscle contraction?

A

cocking of the myosin head to its high-energy position

108
Q

what is the basic contracting unit of a skeletal muscle

A

sarcomere

109
Q

what is a muscle fiber?

A

a single cell of a muscle

110
Q

what is tetanus?

A

a muscle contraction of sustained force resulting from repeated action potentials

111
Q

maximum force is generated by a muscle contraction when:

A

the sarcomere is at intermediate length before contraction begins

112
Q

in an antagonist muscle pair:

A

one muscle undergoes flexion, whereas the other undergoes extension

113
Q

during ___ bone segments move closer together, whereas during ___ bone segments move further apart

A

flexion; extension

114
Q

muscle contractions have ___ force at slower shortening velocities compared to higher shortening velocities

A

increased

115
Q

a single motor neuron and the population of muscle fibers that it innervates is called a:

A

motor unit

116
Q

when skeletal muscles contract such that bone segments move closer together, this action is known as:

A

flexion

LS 7C Soroosh (11 decks)

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