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LS 7C Soroosh > Week 2 (Exam 2): The Nervous System > Flashcards

Week 2 (Exam 2): The Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

what are the components of the central nervous system?

A

brain & spinal cord

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2
Q

what are the components of the peripheral nervous system

A

nerves that extend from the central nervous system to the muscles, skin, & organs

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3
Q

what is the function of the peripheral nervous system?

A

send info towards the CNS

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4
Q

cranial nerves

A

one of 12 paired nerves that emerge from the brain
-involved in many sensory functions

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5
Q

spinal nerves

A

run from the spinal cord to the periphery containing axons of both sensory & motor neurons

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6
Q

what is the somatic (voluntary) component of the peripheral nervous system

A

-sensing & responding to external stimuli
-made of sensory neurons that respond to external stimuli & motor neurons that synapse w/ voluntary muscles

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7
Q

what is the autonomic (involuntary) component of the nervous system?

A
  • controls internal functions of the body
    -organized into sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions
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8
Q

sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system function

A

produces arousal & increased activity
-active in fight-or-flight response

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9
Q

parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

A

enables the body to “rest & digest”

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10
Q

knee-extension reflex

A

involves a single synapse between a sensory neuron & a motor neuron
-activates the extensor muscles, causing the bent leg to straighten

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11
Q

reciprocal inhibition

A

the activation of opposing sets of muscles so that one set is inhibited as the other is activated, allowing the movement of joints such as the knee

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12
Q

hindbrain function

A

controls basic body functions & behavior along with the midbrain

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13
Q

midbrain function

A

controls basic body functions & behaviors as well as the hindbrain

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14
Q

forebrain function

A

governs cognitive functions (cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus)

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15
Q

cerebral cortex function

A

a portion of the forebrain that is greatly expanded in mammals
-the largest part of the brain overseeing sensory perception, memory, & learning

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16
Q

what does the hindbrain develop into

A

the cerebellum & part of the brainstem

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17
Q

cerebellum function

A

coordinates complex motor tasks by integrating motor & sensory info

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18
Q

brainstem function

A

activates the forebrain by relaying info from lower spinal levels
-consists of medulla, pons, & midbrain

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19
Q

medulla function

A

inner layer of the mammalian kidney & adrenal gland

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20
Q

pons

A

part of the brain stem

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21
Q

thalamus function

A

the inner brain region of the forebrain
-relay station for sensory information sent to the cerebrum

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22
Q

hypothalamus function

A

the underlying brain region of the forebrain, which interacts w/ the autonomic & endocrine systems to regulate the general physiological state of the body

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23
Q

cerebrum function

A

the outer left & right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

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24
Q

cerebral cortex function

A

the largest part of the brain, overseeing sensory perception, memory, & learning

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25
Q

limbic system function

A

inner components of the forebrain that control physiological drives, instincts, emotions, motivation, spatial memory, & sense of reward

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26
Q

hippocampus function

A

posterior region of the limbic system within the mammalian brain involved in spatial cognition & long-term memory function

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27
Q

what parts of the brain does signal go through sequentially

A

sensory info —> cerebral cortex —> brainstem —> thalamus —> specific brain region

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28
Q

gray matter

A

densely packed neuron cell bodies & dendrites that make up the cortex, a highly folded outer layer of the mammalian brain that’s about 4 mm thick

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29
Q

white matter

A

the axons of cortical neurons in the interior of the vertebrate brain & spinal cord; the fatty myelin produced by glial cells surrounding the axons make it white

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30
Q

sulci

A

deep crevices in the brain that separate the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres

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31
Q

frontal lobe

A

the region of the brain located in the anterior region of the cerebral cortex, important in decision making & planning

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32
Q

parietal lobe

A

posterior to the frontal lobe that controls body awareness & the ability to perform complex tasks

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33
Q

temporal lobe

A

the region of the brain involved in the processing of sound, language & reading, & object identification & naming

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34
Q

occipital lobe

A

processes visual info from the eyes

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35
Q

central sulcus

A

separates the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe from the primary somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe

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36
Q

primary motor cortex

A

produces complex coordinated behaviors by controlling skeletal muscle movements

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37
Q

primary somatosensory cortex

A

integrates tactile info from specific body regions & relays it to the motor cortex

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38
Q

step 2 of a chemical synapse

A

depolarization of the axon terminal opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channel

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39
Q

step 3 of a chemical synapse

A

vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

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40
Q

step 4 of a chemical synapse

A

neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the postsynaptic cells that are ligand-gated ion channels, opening a change in membrane potential

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41
Q

step 5 of a chemical synapse

A

neurotransmitters are actively reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal & stored in vesicles until the next action potential arrives

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42
Q

step 1 of a chemical synapse

A

action potential travels to the action terminal

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43
Q

nervous system

A

a network of many interconnected nerve cells

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44
Q

which animals first evolved to have a nervous system

A

jellyfish & flatworms
-became more elaborate as animals evolved specialized nervous systems

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45
Q

neurons

A

the functional units of the nervous system

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46
Q

3 types of neurons

A

sensory neurons, interneurons, & motor neurons

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47
Q

sensory neuron function

A

receive & transmit info about an animal’s environment or its internal psychological state
-respond to physical features of the environment (temp, light, & touch or to chemical signals such as odor & taste)

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48
Q

interneurons

A

processes info received by sensory neurons & transmits it to motor neurons

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49
Q

motor neurons

A

signals a muscle or gland to cause a response in the body

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50
Q

ganglia

A

a group of nerve cell bodies that processes sensory information received from a local region, resulting in a signal to motor neurons that control some physiological function of the animal
-relay stations in nerve cell circuits
-assist in processing information from the eyes & controlling the digestive state of an animal’s gut

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51
Q

brain

A

the complex organ located in the head that processes sensory stimuli from the environment & the body, sends motor signals to the body, & controls thought, emotions, & other processes

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52
Q

which animal lacks a nervous system

A

sponges

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53
Q

which animal has the simplest nervous system

A

cnidarians
-made up of neurons arranged like a net (no ganglia or central brain)

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54
Q

which group of animals has the most complex nervous system

A

bilaterians

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55
Q

nerves

A

a bundle of long fiberlike extensions (axons) from multiple nerve cells
-exist in animals with an organized nerve system

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56
Q

paired ganglia

A

help regulate key processes in local regions & organs of the animal’s body

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57
Q

what resulted from the evolution of brains?

A

vertebrates developed complex behaviors, learning, and memory

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58
Q

dendrites

A

fiberlike extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receives signals from other nerve cells or from specialized sensory endings

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59
Q

axons

A

the fiberlike extensions from the cell body of a matrix that transmit signals away from the nerve’s cell body

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60
Q

first step of neuron organization

A

stimuli are received by the dendrites & cell body

61
Q

second step of neuron organization

A

synaptic stimuli are summed at the axon hillock, where an axon potential is triggered if the sum of the arriving signals is high enough

62
Q

third step of neuron organization

A

axon potentials are conducted to the axon terminal, where they cause the release of neurotransmitters that are stored in vesicles
-these bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane, creating a new signal in the postsynaptic neuron

63
Q

axon hillock

A

the junction of the nerve cell body and its axon, which initiates an action potential

64
Q

action potential

A

a brief membrane electrical signal transmitted from the nerve cell body along one or more axons

65
Q

synapse

A

a junction through which the axon terminal of a nerve cell communicates with a neighboring cell

66
Q

synaptic cleft

A

separates the end of the axon of the presynaptic cleft & the neighboring postsynaptic cell

67
Q

neurotransmitters

A

a molecule that conveys a signal from the end of an axon to the postsynaptic target cell, such as another neuron or a muscle fiber

68
Q

what triggers the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles at the terminal?

A

the arrival of a nerve signal at the axon terminal

69
Q

how is the strength of a signal determined?

A

the frequency of signals

70
Q

information integration

A

the process of bringing together information gathered from different sources

71
Q

glial cells

A

a type of cell that surrounds neurons & provides them with nutrition & physical support

72
Q

endothelial cells

A

linked by tight junctions to form the blood-brain barrier that limits the type of compounds that can diffuse from the blood into the brain

73
Q

blood-brain barrier

A

prevents pathogens & toxic compounds in the blood from entering the brain

74
Q

how fast do neuron signals travel?

A

up to 450 mph

75
Q

what is significant about the inside & outside surfaces of a neuron?

A

they carry opposite & unequal charges

76
Q

membrane potential

A

a difference in electrical charge across the cell membrane

77
Q

what is the key to producing an electrical signal in a neuron?

A

the movement of ions across the membrane

78
Q

resting membrane potential

A

the negative voltage across a cell membrane at rest

79
Q

what is the ratio of Na+ to K+ transfer

A

3 Na+ ions moved outside for every 2 K+ ions moved inside

80
Q

what happens to the membrane potential when a nerve cell is excited?

A

it becomes less negative than the outside of the cell

81
Q

depolarization

A

an increase in membrane potential from a negative resting potential
-starts at the end of the dendrite in response to neurotransmitter binding to membrane receptor
-travels cell body
-loses strength
-if depolarization is strong enough at the axon hillock, the cell fires an action potential

82
Q

threshold potential

A

the critical depolarization voltage of -55 mV required for an action potential

83
Q

first stage of an action potential

A

summed input depolarizes the cell membrane at the axon hillock above the threshold potential

84
Q

second stage of an action potential

A

voltage-gated Na+ channels open & Na+ rapidly enters the cell, causing a potential spike in the membrane potential

85
Q

third stage of an action potential

A

as the voltage rises to 40 mV, Na+ channels close & are inactivated, & voltage-gated K+ channels remain open, allowing K+ ions to leave the cell and causing the membrane potential to become more negative

86
Q

fourth stage of an action potential

A

an overshoot in K+ ions leaving the cell makes the cell membrane hyperpolarized, resulting in a refractory period

87
Q

fifth stage of an action potential

A

gradually the membrane returns to resting, as excess K+ ions are returned to the cell, assisted by Na+ - K+ pump

88
Q

positive feedback

A

the output/product of a pathway enhances the initial stimulus, leading to larger and larger response
-self-reinforcing

89
Q

refractory period

A

the period following an action potential during which the inner membrane voltage falls below & then returns to the resting potential

90
Q

how do action potentials move along axons?

A

by sequentially opening & closing adjacent ion channels

91
Q

what is the conduction speed of action potentials limited by?

A

the neuron’s membrane properties & the diameter of its axon

92
Q

myelin

A

fatty insulating layers surrounding the axons of vertebrate neurons, produced by glial cells, that speed up the propogation of action potentials

93
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

lie between adjacent myelin-wrapped segments, where the axon membrane is exposed

94
Q

saltatory propogation

A

the movement of an action potential along a vertebrate myelinated axon “jumping” from node to node

95
Q

two types of synapses

A

electrical or chemical

96
Q

electrical synapses

A

provide direct electrical communication through gap junctions

97
Q

first step of a chemical synapse

A

synaptic transmission begins with action potential conduction to the axon terminal

98
Q

second step of a chemical synapse

A

depolarization of the axon terminal opens voltage-gated Ca 2+ channels

99
Q

third step of chemical synapses

A

vesicles respond by fusing with presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

100
Q

fourth step of chemical synapses

A

neurotransmitters bind with receptors on the postsynaptic cell that are ligand-gated ion channels, opening the channels to allow in ions & causing a change in membrane potential

101
Q

fifth step of chemical synapse

A

neurotransmitters are actively reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal & stored in vesicles until the next action potential arrives

102
Q

ligand-gated ion channels

A

a receptor that alters the flow of ions across the cell membrane when bound by its ligand

103
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

a positive change in the postsynaptic membrane potential

104
Q

hyperpolarization

A

making a membrane potential more negative

105
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

a negative change in the postsynaptic membrane potential

106
Q

when does a postsynaptic nerve cell fire an action potential?

A

only if the combined EPSPs and IPSPs exceed the threshold at the axon hillock

107
Q

temporal summation

A

the summation of postsynaptic potentials over time, which determines whether the postsynaptic cell fires an action potential

108
Q

spatial summation

A

the converging of multiple receptors onto a neighboring neuron, increasing its firing rate proportionally to the number of signals received

109
Q

stretch receptors in the knee extensor muscles stimulated by the tap of a physician’s reflex hammer just below the knee cap directly triggers a nerve impulse in which answer choice?

A

a sensory neuron

110
Q

what is inhibited following a tap of the physician’s reflex hammer just below the knee cap?

A

motor neurons of the knee flexor muscle

111
Q

the interneuron in the spinal cord triggers what?

A

an inhibitory stimulus that prevents contraction of the knee flexor muscles

112
Q

how many synapses are involved in the contraction of the knee extensor muscles in the knee-jerk reflex?

A

1

113
Q

how many synapses in total are involved in the knee-jerk reflex?

A

3

114
Q

a neuron’s ability to generate action potentials depends

A

on the axon reaching threshold and the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing sodium to enter the axon

115
Q

at the moment that the action potential has reached its maximum height, the potential (or voltage) difference across the nerve membrane is

A

more positive inside than out

116
Q

under normal (resting) cellular conditions, the ______ concentration is greater inside the cell, and the plasma membrane is most permeable to _____

A

potassium; potassium

117
Q

______ concentration is always higher outside the cell. during the peak of the peak of the action potential, the plasma membrane is becoming more permeable to ______

A

sodium; potassium

118
Q

in a typical neuron, what happens during an action potential when a voltage-gated potassium channel opens?

A

potassium leaves cell, cell repolarizes

119
Q

what happens when a neuron is depolarized?

A

sodium ions enter the neuron through voltage-gated sodium channels

120
Q

transmission of impulses along a neuron in the vertebrate nervous system ordinarily occurs in only one direction because, following passage of an action potential, the neuron is temporarily in a refractory period or hyperpolarized. this is caused by…

A

the movement of potassium out of the axon

121
Q

in vertebrates, the speed of transmission along a neuron can be increased by…

A

myelinating the axon

122
Q

in vertebrates, the speed of transmission along neurons is much faster in myelinated neurons. what is not true of transmission along myelinated & unmyelinated neurons?

A

saltatory conduction in non-myelinated neurons slows the process of tranmission

123
Q

action potentials typically move in one direction along the neuron away from the cell body due to…

A

the temporary hyperpolarization of the axon membrane following the action potential spike

124
Q

when an action potential reaches the axon terminal…

A

neurotransmitter molecules are released from the axon terminal and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing either an inhibitory hyperpolarization or an excitatory depolarization

125
Q

what causes the increase in cytosolic calcium that triggers the fusion of secretory vesicles to the membrane and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft?

A

the change in conformation of voltage-gated calcium channels in the axon terminal membrane

126
Q

what determines whether or not an action potential is triggered in the postsynaptic neuron

A

the overall net change in membrane potential caused by the combined EPSPs and IPSPs

127
Q

what could be inhibited by greatly decreasing extracellular calcium?

A

the fusion of secretory vesicles with the presynaptic plasma membrane

128
Q

true/false: although animal nervous systems differ in complexity, their nerve cells are still remarkably similar

A

true

129
Q

membrane potential is determined by…

A

the difference in concentration of ions and charged molecules on the two sides of a cell’s plasma membrane

130
Q

true/false: ganglia were the evolutionary precursor to the centralized concentration of neurons that we now call a brain

A

true

131
Q

the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell is an example of…

A

exocytosis

132
Q

what part of a cell’s cytoplasm is responsible for the diversity of nerve cell shape?

A

the cytoskeleton

133
Q

what would happen to a neuron’s resting membrane potential if the number of sodium ion leak channels increased?

A

the membrane potential would become more positive

134
Q

true/false: IPSPs are associated with depolarization, wheras EPSPs are associated with hyperpolarization

A

false

135
Q

what class of membrane-transport protein is associated with triggering an action potential?

A

a voltage-gated ion channel

136
Q

the interior or a neuron is more negative than the outside due to the presence in the interior of…

A

proteins and chloride ions

137
Q

why does an action potential travel down one direction down an axon?

A

because voltage-gated sodium ion channels cannot immediately reopen after depolarization due to the refractory period

138
Q

how can low levels of calcium harm an individual?

A

low levels of calcium would result in fewer signals sent between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell

139
Q

temporal summation is a response to the

A

frequency of stimulation of a postsynaptic cell

140
Q

which portion of the forebrain regulates the endocrine system and body temperature?

A

hypothalamus

141
Q

true/false: all neurons have either a sensory or motor function

A

false

142
Q

body functions such as heart rate, blood flor, and digestion are controlled by the

A

autonomic nervous system

143
Q

the signal to “rest and digest” comes from the

A

parasympathetic system

144
Q

which brain region controls drives, instincts, and emotion?

A

limbic system

145
Q

memory and learning take place in which area of the brain?

A

cerebrum and hippocampus

146
Q

which brain region is associated with language in humans?

A

temporal lobe

147
Q

which region of the brain is larger in humans and primates than in other vertebrates?

A

cerebral cortex

148
Q

which portion of the forebrain regulates the endocrine system and body temperature?

A

hypothalamus

149
Q

what symptoms might you see if a person suffered a stroke in their cerebellum?

A

loss of balance and coordination

LS 7C Soroosh (11 decks)

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