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KNPE 261 > Week 4 > Flashcards

Week 4 Flashcards

1
Q

when is there the greatest chance at predicting anticipation?

A

1 stimulus and 1 response

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2
Q

sensation

A

activation of sensory receptors
- specialized sensory organs are activated by a stimulus
- organs decode sensory information transforming it into neural signals

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3
Q

perception

A

interpretation of those sensory signals
- involves the combination and integration of sensory (afferent) information from multiple sources

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4
Q

what processes are required for us to understand the world?

A

sensation and perception

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5
Q

5 senses

A
  1. vision
  2. touch
  3. smell
  4. taste
  5. hearing (audition)
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6
Q

other important senses

A
  1. sense of balance (equilibrioception) - argued as part of proprioception
  2. sense of body position (proprioception)
  3. sense of temperature (thermoreceptor)
  4. pain sense (nociception)
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7
Q

wetness perception

A

hygroreception
- based on touch and temperature

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8
Q

what is proprioception often paired with?

A

tactile (touch senses)

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9
Q

sensory information

A

used for both movement planning (feedforward) and movement control (feedback)

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10
Q

use of sensory feedback to modify motor commands

A

closed-loop control

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11
Q

closed loop control

A
  1. system receives instructions (input)
  2. goal is defined (reference mechanism)
  3. executive level relays instructions to achieve the goal
  4. effector level enacts the instructions that are relayed (produced output)
  5. sensors in environment produce feedback
  6. feedback is compared to the goal
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12
Q

example of feedback control

A
  1. thermostat
  2. cruise control
  3. electric kettle
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13
Q

where does visual sensation begin?

A

at the eye

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14
Q

visual sensation in the eye

A

light from an object in the visual field is refracted and focused onto the retina

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15
Q

photoreceptors

A

light sensitive cells line the back of the retina

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16
Q

two main types of photoreceptors

A

rods and cones

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17
Q

rods and cones

A
  1. different structures and response profiles
  2. different types of visual information
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18
Q

rods

A

motion/detection
- mainly in periphery
- shadows and motion

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19
Q

cones

A

fine detail

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20
Q

functions of rods

A

when rods are exposed to light they fire, then slowly reduce firing
- binary response to light

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21
Q

functions of cones

A

graded response to light

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22
Q

what is the blind spot caused by?

A

the optic nerve

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23
Q

visual information

A

travels through the optic nerve and various subcortical structures to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

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24
Q

where is visual information relayed to the primary visual cortex (V1)

A

from the LGN in the thalamus

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25
Q

primary visual cortex

A

where visual features such as stimulus direction, stimulus speed and object orientation

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26
Q

2 visual streams visual information can travel two from the V1?

A
  1. dorsal stream
  2. ventral stream
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27
Q

dorsal stream

A

where visual information travels to the parietal areas
- inputs from the full visual field

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28
Q

what is the dorsal stream known as?

A

vision to perform action stream

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29
Q

ventral stream

A

where visual information travels to the temporal lobe
- inputs from the LGN mainly from central vision

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30
Q

what is the ventral stream known as?

A

the vision for perception stream

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31
Q

where does evidence for the 2 streams come from?

A

the perception-action dissociation experiments

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32
Q

optic ataxia

A

stroke affecting parietal area (less temporal area)
- participant can tell orientation, but cant touch it (perception is fine, action is affected)

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33
Q

evidence for the dorsal and ventral streams

A
  1. muller-lyer illusion
  2. ebbinghaus-tichner illusion
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34
Q

trickier illusion

A

tables are the exact same shape

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35
Q

illusions

A

perception scales to illusions, however grip aperture (action) does not

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36
Q

grip aperture

A

measure of the distance between index and thumb when performing reaching movements
- unaffected by illusion

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37
Q

muller-lyer illusion

A

no relationship between constant error and tail-orientation
- perception affected
- grip aperture unaffected

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38
Q

peak acceleration in the trajectory of planning events

A

process occurring during movement planning

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39
Q

gunslinger effect

A

person who reacts is not the person who initiated the movement

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40
Q

influences on different parts of the trajectory (roberts et. al, 2017)

A

action was affected due to the illusion
- travelled a further distance due to the illusion (looks longer)

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41
Q

roberts et. al, 2017 results

A
  1. replicated the gunslinger effect in the movement trajectory
  2. suggest that the ventral (action) stream may be used for more limb target control and the dorsal stream (perception) may be used more for planning
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42
Q

vision

A

visual system indicates where your head and eyes are in space (tells orientation)
- has an effect on balance

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43
Q

optic flow

A

when we move out head, the angle the light rays hit the cells on retina changes
- the environment flows past us as our head and body move

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44
Q

what does optic flow do?

A

gives us crucial information about out position and the position of objects (relative position of us compared to environment)

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45
Q

optic flow effect on children

A

moving room experiments have found that children lose balance if the walls of the room shift

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46
Q

moving room

A

lose balance due to the illusion
- lee and aronson, 1974

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47
Q

what did moving room experiments show?

A

we are highly dependent on vision for our position

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48
Q

what is losing balance due to?

A

optic flow

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49
Q

what does the rate of change of the size of an object in the retina indicate?

A

whether the object is coming toward you or going away from you
- retinal image (A) increases as ball comes closer

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50
Q

what can we estimate from the rate of change of the size of an object on the retina?

A

time to contact (Tau)

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51
Q

what is the time to contact directly proportional to?

A

size of the image (A) divided by the rate of change of the image A dot) multiplied by a constant (K)
- true regardless of distance, size or velocity

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52
Q

Tua

A

k x A/A dot

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53
Q

proprioception

A

sensory information about the position of the body in space
- also known as kinesthesis or kinesthesia

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54
Q

what does proprioception include?

A

information from:
1. vestibular system
2. sensory organs in the muscles and joints
3. cutaneous receptors in skin

55
Q

where is the vestibular system located?

A

in the inner ear

56
Q

otolith organs

A

provide information about the orientation of the head with respect to gravity

57
Q

utricle and saccule

A

sense linear accelerations

58
Q

semicircular canals

A

three fluid-filled half-circles that give orientation on how you’re aligned
- in a position sense directions (aligned to the horizontal, sagittal and frontal planes)
- can sense rotations

59
Q

thick fluids in semi-circular canals

A

displace hair cells (mechanoreceptors)

60
Q

what is the vestibular system important for?

A

balance and orientation

61
Q

how is the vestibular system disrupted?

A

by stimulating the mastoid process

62
Q

vestibular-ocular reflexes

A

when we move our heads - our eyes stay stable
- when our head moves in one direction - out eyes slowly move in the other direction

63
Q

what happens when we go too far and our eyes reach a limit?

A

eyes remained fixated and moved in opposite direction as head was moving

64
Q

nystagmus

A

alternating slow and fast movements
- stop if the head keeps rotating and quickly return to straight position

65
Q

spinning challenge - what helps overcoming dizzy feeling?

A

use of spotting
- focus on a stable visual stimulus (keeping head still)

66
Q

spinning challenge - what may reduce the time the head is spinning?

A

turning the head after the body has undergone motion

67
Q

what might training with spotting do?

A

shift sensory feedback use to more visual sources
- may not improve dance performances in novices
- may get people trained to deal with the feeling of being dizzy faster (just helper people tolerate the feeling)

68
Q

muscle spindles

A

provides information about muscle stretch

69
Q

where are muscle spindles located?

A
  1. in the fleshy part of the muscle body (contractile unit)
  2. oriented in line with the muscle fibre (when muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched)
70
Q

what are muscle spindles comprised of?

A

intrafusal muscles fibres

71
Q

what are intrafusal muscles fibres innervated by?

A

a la afferent fiber
- firing rate is related to length and rate in change in length

72
Q

what do muscle spindles connect to?

A

alpha motor neurons of the muscles through simple reflex circuit
- basis of the stretch reflex

73
Q

when is there more firing?

A

more firing with more stretch

74
Q

motor neurons

A

causes contraction of muscle spindles

75
Q

golgi tendon organs (GTOs)

A

located at the muscle tendon junction
- highly sensitive to active muscle tension
- can respond to forces caused by less than 0.1g

76
Q

GTO attachment

A

each GTO is attached in series to small groups of muscle fibres (<25)
- only a few motor units represented by the innervated muscle fibres

77
Q

hypothesis of GTOs

A

hypothesized to contribute less to overall position sense than muscle spindles

78
Q

joint receptors

A

embedded in the joint capsule

79
Q

where are joint receptors located?

A

primarily located in the areas of the capsule that are stretched the most (joint capsule in elbow, shoulder, knees)

80
Q

research into the joint receptors

A

neural signals are the strongest at the end ranges of the joint movement
- less involved in position sense than muscle spindles

81
Q

where is proprioception processed?

A

in the primary somatosensory cortex

82
Q

how does information get into the cortex?

A

via dorsal root

83
Q

role of proprioception

A

plays a role in rapid-feedback based responses
- stretch reflex based responses to perturbations
- critical to both optimal movement control

84
Q

proprioception role (bagestiero, 2006)

A

proprioception is used to plan distances and vision to plan direction

85
Q

proprioception role and cisek et. al, 1998)

A

proprioceptions may be the key feedback based mechanism
- both the speed of processing and reflex circuitry make it possible

86
Q

dorsal stream processes mainly what?

A

action-related visual information

87
Q

ventral stream processes for mainly what?

A

perception-related visual information

88
Q

golgi tendon organs sense muscle what?

A

muscle tension

89
Q

muscle spindles sense muscle what?

A

muscle stretch

90
Q

issues with motor programming theory?

A
  1. storage problem
  2. degrees of freedom problem
  3. novelty problem
91
Q

storage problem

A

brains have limited capacity = not enough room to store separate motor programs for each movement

92
Q

degrees of freedom problem

A

system has too many independent states to control at the same time

93
Q

novelty problem

A

how do we learn new actions if each new action requires a pre-determined program

94
Q

auditory information

A

more reliable for temporal features of movements
- telling where something is can also be done with auditory feedback (if someone calls tour name, you turn in the right direction)

95
Q

what is open-loop control?

A

no feedback
- don’t have senses that measure feedback from the environment

96
Q

open loop control

A

there is an executive level and an effector level

97
Q

executive level of open loop control

A

sends the motor program to the effectors

98
Q

effector level of open loop control

A

carries out instructions without modification based on feedback

99
Q

open

A

= dont reset

100
Q

when is a response open loop?

A

when the response unfolds without feedback

101
Q

example of open loop response

A

pointing without vision
- bad example because you still have other sources of sensory information

102
Q

when is a system open loop?

A

if the system doesn’t take feedback into account

103
Q

example of a open loop system

A

living with a sensory neuropathy
- lack of sensation = no sensory feedback

104
Q

examples of open loop control

A
  1. intersection: traffic lights on and off - even when collision the traffic lights keep going, they don’t get modified
  2. different sets of instructions - but when you choose setting it doesn’t make corrections during cooking
105
Q

do open loop systems make feedback-based corrections?

A

no

106
Q

feedforward control

A

involves a signal that
1. readies the system for the motor command
2. readies the system for som input
- use sensory information to plan action

107
Q

where did the concept of feedforward control emerge from?

A

the study of eye movements (saccades)

108
Q

what happens when our eyes move?

A

light hits the retina at different angles
- the same occurs if the world moves

109
Q

von holst and mittlestadt (1950)

A
  1. discovered concept of ‘reafference’ or corollary discharge
  2. a copy of the motor command that was sent to muscles is delivered to sensory regions in the brain
  3. the individual therefore perceives the world as moving
110
Q

efference copy

A

the copy of the motor command
- sends information

111
Q

subcortical sauron

A

feedback control in eye movements

112
Q

kiernan et. al, 2016

A
  1. saccade end points adjusts to target jumps
    - even if jumps were unconscious (subcortical mechanism)
  2. provides some evidence than eye movements could be affected by feedback
113
Q

what does the efference copy allow?

A

the prediction of the action outcome and the sensory consequences of the action

114
Q

what does the efference copy tell the sensory system?

A

what was “ordered” by the motor system
- prepares the motor system for outcomes about to be experienced

115
Q

what does the sensory system use to compute an error?

A

the predicted and actual sensory feedback

116
Q

how can we test for the existence of feedforward control in limb movements?

A

use active vs. passive task

117
Q

active vs. passive tasks

A

participants are generally better at error estimate when they have efferent information
- proprioception may play more of a role than previously thought
- can predict the outcome of their actions when there is efferent information

118
Q

result of efferent copy?

A

helped with predicting error of the movement

119
Q

why we cannot tickle ourselves (forward models)

A

because you are predicting what it’s expecting to feel like (efference copy)
- preparing your own action

120
Q

blackmore et. al, 1998, 1999, 2000 results

A
  1. as the robot hand movement offset increased, trials were more ticklish
  2. authors concluded the sensory predictions were less accurate with greater hand-robot offsets
  3. ability to predict sensory consequences of our actions affects perception
121
Q

forward models

A

used to establish predictions about the desired state
- produce predictions about the movements intended outcome and desired feedback
(tells sensory system what it’s supposed to feel like)

122
Q

what does a forward model establish?

A

a reference of correctness for which to compare to based on sensory information
- they are used continuously throughout the movement to update the reference of correctness

123
Q

computational solution of motor programming problems

A
  1. motor problems must be generalized (schmidt, 1985)
  2. motor programs must resemble a function
124
Q

what is a function

A

X = mean (4,8,2)
X= answer
mean= set of processes to be performed
(4,8,2)= input

125
Q

function

A

what the function does, does not change
- function is invariant
- input can change though

126
Q

invariant or algorithmic features of the GMP?

A
  1. relative timing
  2. relative force
  3. sequence of events
    - these components are in the function - not changed by the user
127
Q

relative timing

A

the timing of muscle activations relative to others (don’t change)

128
Q

relative force

A

the force of muscle activations relative to others (don’t change)

129
Q

sequence of events

A

the sequence of events (don’t change)

130
Q

motor equivalence

A

writing your name with left and right hand

131
Q

parameters (inputs) into the GMP

A
  1. overall duration of the movement
  2. overall force
  3. effector (limb) used
132
Q

overall force

A
  1. don’t get a change in pattern of acceleration
  2. produce bigger word in same amount of time - don’t change patterns, change accerlation
133
Q

effector (limb) used

A

right and left hand produce the same acceleration

134
Q

what serves as a solution to theoretical problems with regard to motor programming ?

A

generalized motor programs

KNPE 261 (10 decks)

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