Week 4 Flashcards

1
Q

The difference between cause and coincidence is…?

A

correlation does not mean causation

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2
Q

To say medication cured the headache is a ___ ____

A

causal inference

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3
Q

Treatment effect =

A

amount of observed change in outcome

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4
Q

What is spurious causation?

A

occurs when two factors appear casually related to one another but are not

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5
Q

Direction of causality can go both ways… e.g.

A

Social media makes teenagers depressed
OR
depressed teenagers tend to use social media more

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6
Q

Confounding =

A

“third-variable problem”

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7
Q

Selection (sampling) bias is…?

A
  • Certain types of people recruited–> cannot generalise results to population
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8
Q

Allocation bias is…?

A

starting differences between treatment and control conditions –> outcome differences may be due to starting differences and not the treatment (SOLUTION: run RCT)

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9
Q

Maturation bias is…?

A
  • Changes occur naturally over time, not due to treatment

- SOLUTION: RCT, compare treatment and control, both should change the same

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10
Q

Detection bias is…?

A
  • Differences between groups in how outcomes are measured

- SOLUTION: Blinding assessors measuring outcomes

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11
Q

Performance bias is…?

A
  • Systematic differences in how treatment is provided

- SOLUTION: blind participants and clinicians, maintain control over procedures (it is difficult)

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12
Q

Attrition bias is…?

A
  • Differences between groups among those dropping out

- SOLUTION: maximise retention, conduct short term rather than long term

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13
Q

Measurement bias =

A

systematic error, invalid results

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14
Q

Regulation bias may be…?

A

ethical or bureaucratic restrictions on research

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15
Q

Population choice biased –> some groups e.g. minors, vulnerable, rural, remote, threatens ____ validity

A

external (generalisability)

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16
Q

Attrition bias threatens ____ validity

A

internal

17
Q

Selective reporting bias is..?

A

Researchers only show desired result

18
Q

Publication bias is…?

A

Only significant results reported

19
Q

Author prestige bias is….?

A

A known author and researcher being more trusted than a new one (despite their work)

20
Q

A case series design with just a single observation after treatment cannot detect ____

A

change (before and after difference)

21
Q

Can the test itself interfere with validity?

A

Yes, the before or pre-test might act as practise and make the person more competent when they take the second (false improvement)

22
Q

Statistical regression is a risk when selection for treatments occurs because of unusually ….?

A

good or poor performance is prevalent before any treatment (someone may ‘accidentally’ perform very badly, and then when they perform at their usual standard it looks like an improvement)

23
Q

Comparative studies are also known as…?

A

quasi-experiments

24
Q

Comparative study is level ___

A

III

25
Q

RCT is level ___

A

II

26
Q

Problem with quasi-experiments…

A
  • Post treatment differences between groups may be attributed to treatment, when there were actually differences before hand simply in the groups
  • Treatment or control groups may have differences that have not been measured that help or stop treatment
27
Q

Internal validity threats that random allocation can’t protect (5)

A
  • Mortality/attrition bias
  • Statistical conclusion validity - problems with statistical accuracy
  • compensatory rivalry - control group tries to prove themselves
  • imitation or compensatory alternative treatment that control receives
  • resentful demoralisation - control group goes on strike because they are ‘missing’ treatment)
28
Q

Single blinding vs double blinding?

A

Single blinding: allocation concealed to participants

Double blinding: Allocation also hidden from staff and researchers (where possible)

29
Q

External validity threats that random allocation can’t protect (6)?

A
  • Artificial nature of many experiments (lab setting)
  • Treatment inference (in real world, treatment may not be identical to research)
  • Experimenter effects (biases in delivery of treatment)
  • Pretest sensitisation (Pre test might tell people what to expect in post test)
  • Sampling bias (not representative of population)
  • Random allocation not directly protect external validity, but may help indirectly by protecting internal validity
30
Q

Random selection (sampling) vs random allocation

A

Random selection: sample is drawn from population by chance

Random allocation: Subjects allocated to control or treatment group by chance

31
Q

Experimental designs with random allocation to treatment and control groups give _____ support for causal inferences

A

best

32
Q

Experimental designs, including best RCTs cant/can prove cause and effect

A

can’t

33
Q

Confidence interval indicates…

A

the percentage of the time intervals that will contain the population parameter
- measures degree of uncertainty or certainty in sampling method